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2016 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

16. From Accepting to Challenging the International Law of the Sea: China and the South China Sea Disputes

verfasst von : Jacques deLisle

Erschienen in: Legal Thoughts between the East and the West in the Multilevel Legal Order

Verlag: Springer Singapore

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Abstract

The international law of the sea has been a significant area of China’s engagement with an international legal order largely shaped by the West. China’s encounter with the international law of the sea progressed from bad beginnings in the nineteenth and much of the twentieth century, proceeded through a phase of “regime taking” when China engaged the international law of the sea regime largely on the latter’s terms near the end of the twentieth century, and has recently entered a more complicated and less acquiescent phase. The current period, associated with China’s rise as a great power, is marked by PRC positions and behavior that are in tension with status quo rules and norms. China has maintained a stance of ostensible conformity with existing law while launching ambiguous challenges to the status quo. China is not—or, at least, not yet—fully or openly revisionist, and it may become less so if, or as, its agenda shifts in response to its growing power and expanding interests.

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Vorheriges Kapitel The Transplantation of “Western” International Law in Republican China

Nächstes Kapitel Human Rights in ASEAN Context: Between Universalism and Relativism

See generally deLisle (2000a), Svarverud (2007), and Fairbank (1973).

See generally Wang (1990), deLisle (2000b), and Chan (2015).

See generally Chiu (1966) and Cohen and Chiu (1974).

Declaration of the Government of the People’s Republic of China on China’s Territorial Sea, 4 September 1958 [hereinafter “Declaration on Territorial Sea”]

UN Doc., Letter Dated 3 March 1972 from the Permanent Representative of China to the United Nations Addressed to the Chairman of the Special Committee, A/AC 109/396 (3 Mar. 1972).

See Kim (1979), pp. 444–457, and Greenfield (1992), pp. 193–206. In a position that persists today, China also opposed compulsory binding dispute resolution.

UN (1996), Declaration of the People’s Republic of China upon Ratification of UNCLOS and UN (2006), Declaration of the People’s Republic of China to UNCLOS Upon ratification. http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_declarations.htm#China. Accessed 27 March 2016.

Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone (1992) [hereinafter Territorial Sea Law] and Declaration of the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Baselines of the Territorial Sea of the People’s Republic of China (15 May 1996) [hereinafter Declaration on Baselines]. As is discussed below, China’s drawing of baselines and construction of coastal state regulatory powers in these zones is, in these documents, highly expansive.

Law on the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf of the People’s Republic of China (1998) [hereinafter EEZ and Continental Shelf Law]

EEZ and Continental Shelf Law, art. 14.

Survey and Mapping Law of the People’s Republic of China (1992, 2002) [hereinafter Survey and Mapping Law] and Fisheries Law of the People’s Republic of China (2000, 2004, 2013). An earlier version of the Fisheries Law predated China’s engagement with UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, art. 10.6, 10 December 1982, 1833 U.N.T.S. 561. [hereinafter UNCLOS]) rules and does not engage their content.

For a more detailed, earlier analysis of several of these aspects of China’s explicit and implicit legal arguments, see generally deLisle (2012).

For an overview of the nine-dash line and its origins, see generally Li and Li (2003) and Zou (2005), ch. 3.

People’s Republic of China (2009), Note Verbale to the Secretary General of the United Nations with regard to the joint submission made by Malaysia and Vietnam to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, CML/17/2009 (hereinafter Note Verbale 2009); see also, People’s Republic of China (2011), Note Verbale to the Secretary General of the United Nations with regard to the Philippines’ Note Verbale, No. 000228, CML/8/2011/ (hereinafter Note Verbale 2011).

See, for example, Peng (2010) and Dutton (2010) (quoting Wang Shumei, Shi Jianzhu, and Xu Mingshan (2007), China Military Science); South China Sea Institute (2014) (characterizing the map as highlighting China’s “historic title” consistent with UNCLOS).

Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Jiang Yu’s Regular Press Conference on 15 September 2011; see also UPI (2011), China Warns on South China Sea Oil. http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Energy-Industry/2011/09/15/China-warns-on-South-China-Sea-oil/34651316109006/. Accessed 27 March 2016 (quoting Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Jiang Yu)

See the discussion in deLisle (2012), pp. 615–616, 618–619; Statement of Scott Marciel, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State, Hearing Before the Senate Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs (15 July 2009), p. 5; Statement of Robert Scher, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense, Hearing Before the Senate Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs (15 July 2009), pp. 9, 11; United States Department of State, Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (2014), Limits in the Seas: China: Maritime Claims in the South China Sea, no. 143, pp. 14–15. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/234936.pdf. Accessed 27 March 2016

South China Sea Arbitration (Republic of the Philippines v. Peoples Republic of China), PCA Case No. 2013–19 (July 12, 2016) pp 277–278.

UNCLOS art. 10.6. See also UNCLOS art 7.5 (“long usage” relevant in drawing baselines for maritime zones), art. 46–47 (areas “historically regarded” as archipelagos and rights “traditionally” exercised therein).

UNCLOS, art. 15. See also UNCLOS art. 51 (recognition of “traditional” fishing rights in archipelagic waters).

In the context of semi-enclosed seas, UNCLOS imposes special obligations of cooperation—rather than the especially robust single coastal state rights China asserts in the South China Sea. See UNCLOS, art. 123.

This point is discussed more fully below in connection with China’s partly history-based claims to sovereignty over landforms that might give rise to rights over adjoining sea areas.

See United States Department of State, Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (1992), Limits in the Seas: United States Responses to Excessive National Maritime Claims, no. 112, p. 13. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/58381.pdf. Accessed 27 March 2016; International Law Commission (1962); United States Department of State (2014), pp. 21–22.

EEZ and Continental Shelf Law, art. 14; Song and Zou (2000), pp. 318–19.

Gao and Jia (2013); Zhang Haiwen (2011), Indisputable Sovereignty, Beijing Review. http://www.bjreview.com.cn/Cover_Stories_Series_2011/2011-06/07/content_380993_2.htm. Accessed 27 March 2016; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China (2014), Position Paper of the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Matter of Jurisdiction in the South China Sea Arbitration Initiated by the Republic of the Philippines, paras. 8, 68, 92–93. http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1217147.shtml. Accessed 27 March 2016 [hereinafter PRC Position Paper]; Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Jiang Yu’s Regular Press Conference on 15 September 2011 (asserting that UNCLOS “does not restrain or deny a country’s right which is formed in history and abidingly upheld”). These arguments lean, to varying degrees on a passage in the UNCLOS preamble: “Affirming that matters not regulated by this Convention continue to be governed by the rules and principles of general international law.”

The detail of the footnote is: Philippines v. China pp 230–278

Declaration on Territorial Sea, para. 1.

Territorial Sea Law, art. 2; Declaration on Ratification of UNCLOS.

Note Verbale 2009 (responding to Malaysia and Vietnam).

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China (1980), China’s Indisputable Sovereignty over the Xisha and Nansha Islands; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China (2000), (The Issue of the South China Sea); Note Verbale 2011; PRC Position Paper para 4–6, 11–12, 18–22.

See the PRC sources cited in the preceding footnote; South China Sea: Controversies and Solutions: Interview with Liu Nanlai, Beijing Review. http://eng.oversea.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?dbCode=cjfd&QueryID=13&CurRec=1&filename=BJZB200922006&dbname=CJFDN0911 Accessed 27 March 2016; see also deLisle (2012), pp. 621–626.

See UNCLOS, art. 121 (defining “islands” potentially generating a 200-mile EEZ and continental shelf as an area of land above water at high tide and which can support human habitation or an economic life of its own and “rocks” capable of generating a territorial sea as an area of land above water at high tide but failing to satisfy the additional criteria for “island” status).

See, for example, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan) (2016a), Remarks by President Ma Ying-jeou on Taiping Island. http://www.mofa.gov.tw/en/News_Content.aspx?n=8157691CA2AA32F8&sms=4F8ED5441E33EA7B&s=9B04614B26F7FD33. Accessed 27 March 2016; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan) (2016b), Taiping Island is an Island, Not a Rock, and the ROC Possesses Full Rights Associated with an Exclusive Economic Zone and Continental Shelf in Accordance with UNCLOS. http://www.mofa.gov.tw/en/News_Content.aspx?n=539A9A50A5F8AF9E&s=542A8C89D51D8739. Accessed 27 March 2016; Kwok Kristine (2016), Taiwanese President’s Trip to South China Sea Island Unhelpful, US Says, South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/1905842/taiwanese-presidents-trip-south-china-sea-island. Accessed 27 March 2016 (quoting PRC Taiwan Affairs Office spokesperson Ma Xiaoguang, acquiescing in the visit as consistent with Taiwan and Mainland obligations of “safeguarding national sovereignty and territorial integrity”); PRC Position Paper, para 22 (describing Taiping island as the “largest island in the Nansha”).

Philippines v. China, pp 577–633.

In its 2013-filed arbitration claim against China, the Philippines sought a ruling that some of the areas where China has engaged in reclamation are mere low-tide elevations and not rocks. On claims about James Shoal/Zengmu Ansha as China’s “southernmost territory,” see Zhao Lei (2013), Combatant Ships Patrol Southernmost Point, China Daily. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013-03/27/content_16350358.htm. Accessed 27 March 2016; Hayton Bill (2013), How a Non-Existent Island Became China’s Southernmost Territory, South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1146151/how-non-existent-island-became-chinas-southernmost-territory?page=all. Accessed 27 March 2016.

Declaration on Baselines; see generally Dzurek (1996) (critiquing PRC claims under UNCLOS); Hong et al. (2013) (suggesting principles applying to territorial waters of archipelagic states could be applied to Chinese-claimed South China Sea groups).

See, e.g., United States Department of State, Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (1996), Limits in the Seas: Straight Baseline Claim: China , No. 117. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/57692.pdf. Accessed 27 March 2016

LaGrone Sam (2016b), U.S. Destroyer Challenges More Chinese South China Sea Claims in New Freedom of Navigation Operation, USNI News. http://news.usni.org/2016/01/30/u-s-destroyer-challenges-more-chinese-south-china-sea-claims-in-new-freedom-of-navigation-operation. Accessed 27 March 2016; Hueviet (2016), Full Statement of US Dept Defense on USS Curtis Wilbur’s FONOP Past Triton Island, South China Sea Research, https://seasresearch.wordpress.com/2016/01/31/full-statement-of-us-dept-defense-on-uss-curtis-wilburs-fonop-past-triton-island/. Accessed 27 March 2016.

UNCLOS, arts. 46–54.

UNLCOS, arts. 59, 74, 83; North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Germany v. Denmark & Netherlands), 1969 I.C.J. 3 (20 February 1969); Guyana v. Suriname Arbitral Award; Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), 2012 I.C.J. 624 (17 September 2007)

See deLisle (2012), pp. 628–635; Ren and Cheng (2005), pp. 139–146; see generally Dutton and Garofano (2009).

Territorial Sea Law, arts. 6, 12; UNCLOS, arts 17, 19.

UNCLOS, arts. 19, 21.

Sciutto Jim (2015), Behind the Scenes: A Secret Navy Flight over China ’s Military Build-Up, CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/26/politics/south-china-sea-navy-surveillance-plane-jim-sciutto/. Accessed 27 March 2016; Perlez Jane (2015), U.S. Admiral, in Beijing, Defends Patrols in South China Sea, New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/04/world/asia/south-china-sea-navy-patrols-beijing.html?_r=0. Accessed 27 March 2016; Klein Adam and Rapp-Hooper Mira (2015), Freedom of Navigation Operations in the South China Sea: What to Watch Out For, Lawfare. https://www.lawfareblog.com/freedom-navigation-operations-south-china-sea-what-watch. Accessed 27 March 2016; supra note 35.

See, e.g., Blanchard Ben and Shalal Andrea (2015), Angry China Shadows U.S. Warship Near Man-made Islands, Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-southchinasea-usa-idUSKCN0SK2AC20151028. Accessed 27 March 2016 [hereinafter Blanchard Ben and Shalal Andrea (2015)]; Mu Xuequan (2016), China Urges U.S. Not to Undermine Mutual Trust, Xinhua. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-01/30/c_135060127.htm. Accessed 27 March 2016 [hereinafter Mu Xuequan (ed) (2016)]

Territorial Sea Law, art. 8, EEZ and Continental Shelf Law, art. 11.

Surveying and Mapping Law, art. 7; EEZ, art. 9; see generally Xue (2009).

China Demands U.S. Navy End Surveillance Missions, Sina.com. http://english.sina.com/china/2009/0311/225194.html. Accessed 27 March 2016; see generally Pedrozo (2009); Ji (2009).

For a review of such views, see generally Hayashi (2005). Tallies of states’ views on rights in the EEZ find fewer than twenty to at most two dozen states fully siding with China and well over one hundred siding with the U.S.-favored view. Dutton, Statement at Hearing Before the Senate Subcommittee, p. 24; Pedrozo (2010), para 32; see also deLisle (2012).

See generally Pedrozo (2010); Geng (2012).

Spokesman Zhu Bangzao Gives Full Account of Collision between U.S. and Chinese Military Planes. http://www.china-un.ch/eng/premade/11437/spokesman040401.htm. Accessed 27 March 2016 [hereinafter Spokesman Zhu Bangzao Gives Full Account of Collision between U.S. and Chinese Military Planes (2001)]; U.S. Plane Grossly Violated International Law, People’s Daily. http://en.people.cn/english/200104/04/eng20010404_66763.html. Accessed 27 March 2016 [hereinafter People’s Daily (2001)]; LaGrone Sam (2016a), China Upset over ‘Unprofessional’ U.S. Freedom of Navigation Operation, USNI News. http://news.usni.org/2016/01/31/china-upset-over-unprofessional-u-s-south-china-sea-freedom-of-navigation-operation. Accessed 27 March 2016; Mu Xuequan (ed) (2016).

Zheng Wang (2013), China ’s Puzzling ADIZ Decision Making, The Diplomat. http://thediplomat.com/2013/12/chinas-puzzling-adiz-decision-making/. Accessed 27 March 2016; Harlan Chico (2013), China Creates New Air Defense Zone in East China Sea amid Dispute with Japan, Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/china-creates-new-air-defense-zone-in-east-china-sea-amid-dispute-with-japan/2013/11/23/c415f1a8-5416-11e3-9ee6-2580086d8254_story.html. Accessed 27 March 2016; Li Bao and Si Yang (2015), Experts Worry China May Soon Establish South China Sea ADIZ , Voice of America. http://www.voanews.com/content/experts-concerned-china-may-soon-establish-southern-adiz/2882795.html. Accessed 27 March 2016; Almond Roncevert (2015), Mandate of Heaven: An ADIZ in the South China Sea, The Diplomat. http://thediplomat.com/2015/07/mandate-of-heaven-an-adiz-in-the-south-china-sea/. Accessed 27 March 2016.

See generally Ren and Cheng (2005); Zhang (2011); UNCLOS arts. 58, 87.

People’s Daily (2001); Mu Xuequan (ed) (2016); UNCLOS, arts. 88,141,143, 301; United Nations Charter, arts. 1, 2(3).

See UNCLOS art. 300.

Blanchard Ben and Shalal Andrea (2015); Bi Mingxin (ed) (2011), Chinese General Says U.S. Military Drills in South China Sea ‘Inappropriate’, Xinhua. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-07/11/c_13978401.htm. Accessed 27 March 2016 (PLA Chief of General Staff Chen Bingde); Liu Chang (2012), Intensive U.S.-Led War Games Detrimental to Asia-Pacific Stability, Xinhua. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/indepth/2012-08/05/c_131762540.htm. Accessed 27 March 2016; Spokesman Zhu Bangzao Gives Full Account of Collision between U.S. and Chinese Military Planes (2001); Ren and Cheng (2005), sec. 5; Ji (2009) (US actions were “threat of force” against “China’s territorial integrity and political independence”); UNCLOS arts. 19, 39, 301; UN Charter, art. 2(4).

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Zou K (2005) Law of the Sea in East Asia: issues and prospects. Routledge, London

Titel: From Accepting to Challenging the International Law of the Sea: China and the South China Sea Disputes
verfasst von: Jacques deLisle
Verlag: Springer Singapore
Buch: Legal Thoughts between the East and the West in the Multilevel Legal Order
Print ISBN: 978-981-10-1994-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-981-10-1995-1

Copyright-Jahr: 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1995-1_16