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2016 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

From GATS to TiSA: Pushing the Trade in Services Regime Beyond the Limits

verfasst von : Jane Kelsey

Erschienen in: European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2016

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Trade in services agreements are creatures of neoliberalism. As normative and disciplinary instruments, they have evolved over time, reaching progressively deeper into the regulatory domain of nation states and imposing fetters on the autonomy and authority of governments to determine the best way to regulate services in the national interest. With the paralysis in the World Trade Organization (WTO), new generation free trade and investment agreements offered a way to redesign the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), align it to new technologies and corporate imperatives, and further circumscribe governments’ regulatory options. Ever-more aggressive ambitions, now being pursued through a plurilateral Trade in Services Agreement (TiSA) with a view to exporting it back into the WTO, have exacerbated the long-standing tensions that beset the GATS. As these agreements continue to push the boundaries, their attempts to lock governments into a more extreme version of the troubled neoliberal paradigm will heighten the problems of legitimacy confronting the agreements themselves and the WTO.

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Nächstes Kapitel Trade in Services and Regulatory Flexibility: 20 Years of GATS, 20 Years of Critique

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As of April 2015 23 cases had cited the GATS in the request for consultations, but only six had been subject of a panel or Appellate Body decision and most involved some form of e-commerce: Appellate Body, European Communities – Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas – Complaint by Ecuador, (WT/DS27/AB/R), 9 September 1997; Appellate Body, Canada – Certain Measures Affecting the Automotive Industry, (WT/DS139/AB/R), 31 May 2000 (also DS142); Panel, Mexico – Measures Affecting Telecommunications Services, (WT/DS204/R), 2 April 2004; Appellate Body, US – Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Internet Gambling and Betting Services, (WT/DS285/AB/R), 7 April 2005; Appellate Body, China – Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and Audiovisual Entertainment Products, (WT/DS363/AB/R), 21 December 2009; Panel, China – Certain Measures Affecting Electronic Payment Services, (WT/DS413/R), 16 July 2012.

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GATS Article VI.1 and VI.5.

Quoted in Feketekuty G (1999) Assessing the WTO General Agreement on Trade in Services And Improving the GATS Architecture, Institute for Trade and Commercial Diplomacy, http://www.commercialdiplomacy.org/articles_news/brookings.htm (last accessed 21 April 2015).

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Appellate Body, European Communities – Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas – Complaint by Ecuador, (WT/DS27/AB/R), 9 September 1997, pp. 101–103 at paras 240–248.

GATS Article XXI.

See, eg. Council for Trade in Services, Communication from the European Communities and its Member States. Certification, S/C/W/273, 9 October 2006.

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The US agreed compensatory market access to its postal and courier, research and development, and storage and warehouse sectors. Canada, Japan and Australian also reportedly settled. However, the US said it was only binding existing liberalisation, subject to approval of Congress. ICTSD, Antigua Awarded Modest Cross-Retaliation Rights in Gambling Dispute with US, Bridges, Volume 12, no. 1, 16 January 2008, http://www.ictsd.org/bridges-news/bridges/news/antigua-awarded-modest-cross-retaliation-rights-in-gambling-dispute-with (last accessed 21 April 2015).

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Interview with author, Washington DC, 3 May 2005 quoted in Kelsey (2008), p. 157.

Under GATS Article XVIII.

The Financial Services Agreement comprises the GATS text, Members’ schedules of commitments and the Annex on Financial Services, supplemented by the voluntary Understanding on Commitments in Financial Services.

Sauvé and Gillespie (2000), p. 430.

Arnold (2005), pp. 299–330, referring to the Guidelines for Mutual Recognition Agreements or Arrangements in the Accountancy Sector, adopted May 1997; Disciplines on Domestic Regulation in the Accountancy Sector, adopted on 14 December 1998, SL/64, 17 December 1998.

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GATS Article XV.1.

GATS Article XIII.2.

Council for Trade in Services, Negotiations on Trade in Services. Report by the Chairman, Ambassador Fernando de Mateo, to the Trade Negotiations Committee, TN/S/36, 21 April 2011, pp. 11–12, paras 73–78.

GATS Article XIX.1.

Under GATS Article XIX.3.

Discussed in Kelsey (2008), p. 44.

WTO, Guidelines and Procedures for the Negotiations on Trade in Services, S/L/93, 29 March 2001, p. 1.

WTO, Guidelines for the Scheduling of Specific Commitments under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), S/L/92, 23 March 2001.

WTO, Guidelines and Procedures for the Negotiations on Trade in Services, S/L/93, p. 2 at para 11.

WTO Ministerial Declaration, WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1, 14 November 2001, para 15.

Kelsey (2008), p. 46.

The Russian Federation did not become a Member until 2012.

Kelsey (2008), pp. 46–47.

EC non-paper, 27 October 2005. On file with author.

Council for Trade in Services, Modalities for the Special Treatment for Least-Developed Country Members in the Negotiations on Trade in Services, adopted 3 September 2003, consistent with GATS Article IV.3.

Khor (2005), p. 5.

Kelsey (2008), p. 48.

WTO Negotiations on Market Access, https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/market_access_negs_e.htm (last accessed 21 April 2015).

Kelsey (2005), p. 247.

WTO General Council, Accession of Least-Developed Countries, Decision of 10 December 2002, WT/L/508.

WTO Ministerial Declaration, WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1, 14 November 2001, para. 42.

Grynberg et al. (2006).

National Coalition for Commenting on TPP, Open letter to Prime Minister Abe, 13 March 2013, see translation at http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PO1303/S00188/terms-of-japans-entry-to-tppa-talks-bad-news-for-nz.htm (last accessed 21 April 2015).

The NZ-Thailand FTA 2005 provided for subsequent negotiations of services; the Pacific Island Countries Trade Agreement (PICTA) came into force in 2006 for goods, followed by a services protocol that was opened for signature in 2012; the interim EPAs negotiated by the EU with ACP regions were for goods only.

WTO, The Future of the WTO: Addressing Institutional Challenges in the New Millennium. Report by the Consultative Board to the Former Director-General Supachai Panitchpakdi, 2005, Geneva: WTO; Mattoo and Fink, Regional Agreements and Trade in Services, 2002, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, 2852; Panagariya (1999) pp. 477–451.

Crawford and Fiorentino, The Changing Landscape of Regional Trade Agreements, 2005, WTO Discussion Paper Series, No. 8, p. 16.

Bhala (2007), pp. 77–105.

Bendini, The European Union’s Trade Policy, 5 Years After the Lisbon Treaty, Directorate General for External Policies of the European Union, 2014, p. 9.

Roy et al., Services Liberalization in the New Generation of Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs): How Much Further than the GATS?, 2006, WTO Staff Working, Paper Economic Research and Statistics Division, available at http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/reser_e/ersd200607_e.pdf (last accessed 21 April 2015). See also Kelsey (2008), pp. 55–57.

See, for example in relation to the US and EU FTAs with South Korea: Kelsey (2011), pp. 845–868, esp. 857–868.

Kelsey (2008), pp. 42–50.

Eg. Article 8.10 of the Free Trade Agreement between New Zealand and the Republic of Korea 2015.

Eg. Article 88.1 on Computer services and Article 89.1 on Courier Services in the Economic Partnership Agreement Between the Cariforum States and the European Community and its Member States 2008.

GATS Article I.3(a).

That was a standard feature of US FTAs. Some negative list annexes grandfathered all existing local government measures without requiring them to be listed.

Kelsey (2008), pp. 42–50.

Under GATT Article XXIV and the Enabling Clause, development flexibilities are limited to agreements between developing countries.

Kelsey J, Legal Analysis of Services and Investment in the Cariforum EC EPA: Lessons for Other Developing Countries, Research Paper 31, July 2010, South Centre, Geneva, p. ii.

https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/region_e.htm (last accessed 21 April 2015).

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Article 69 in the chapter on Commercial Presence refers to both commercial presences and investors and is not restricted to services. At the time, the European Commission did not have a mandate to negotiate for investor protections, but included market access and national treatment for non-services investors, which was not included in the GATS.

Cariforum-EC EPA, Annex IV-E.

Kelsey J (2010) Legal Analysis of Services and Investment in the Cariforum EC EPA, South Center, Research paper 31, pp. 40–43.

Cariforum-EC EPA, Article 70.1(a).

Cariforum-EC EPA, Article 70.1(b), 70.4 and 70.5.

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Quoted in Shashikant and Tayob, UNCTAD Meeting Warns of Effects of Bilateral, Regional FTAs, 2007, South-North Development Monitor (SUNS), No. 6214.

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A similar provision in the TPPA applies for 4 years.

Decision of the European Ombudsman closing her own-initiative inquiry OI/10/2014/RA Concerning the European Commission, 6 January 2015, http://www.ombudsman.europa.eu/cases/decision.faces/en/58668/html.bookmark (last accessed 21 April 2015).

TiSA, Financial Services Annex Consolidated Text, 19 June 2014, https://wikileaks.org/TiSA-financial/ (last accessed 21 April 2015); US, Trade in Services Agreement TiSA Proposal. New Trade in Services Commitment Applicable to All Services, 25 April 2014, https://data.awp.is/filtrala/2014/12/17/19.html (last accessed 21 April 2015).

For analysis of those developments and risks in the context of the financial services and investment in TPPA see: Kelsey (2010), pp. 1–43.

Reinhart and Rogoff (2013), pp. 4557–4573; Reinhart CM, Rogoff KS, Financial and Sovereign Debt Crises: Some Lessons Learned and Those Forgotten. IMF Working Paper WP/13/266, December 2013.

100

Jeasakul P, Lim CH, Lundback E, Why Was Asia Resilient? Lessons from the Past and for the Future, IMF Working Paper WP/14/38, February 2014, p. 9.

101

The leaked annex did not disclose the proposed approach to capital account liberalization US demanded that its FTAs require full capital account liberalisation with no provision for balance of payments emergencies, despite even the IMF endorsing capital controls as a valid stabilisation mechanism. It is conceivable that other TiSA members would agree to this, but the US may insist on some tighter restrictions than are currently in GATS Articles XVI footnote 8, XI and XII.

102

Declaration on Global Electronic Commerce, Adopted on 20 May 1998, WT/MIN(98)/DEC/2, 25 May 1998 (98–2148).

103

Work Programme on Electronic Commerce, 2 December 2009.

104

See discussions in Wunsch-Vincent (2003); Wunsch-Vincent S (2005) WTO, E-commerce, and Information Technologies: From the Uruguay Round through the Doha Development Agenda: A Report for the UN ICT Task Force, Markle Foundation, http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/wunsch1104.pdf (last accessed 21 April 2015); Kelsey (2008), pp. 167–173.

105

The Scheduling Guidelines differentiated on the basis of whether the service is delivered inside or outside the territory. MTN.GNS/W/164. The Secretariat suggested the decisive factor was whether the government’s measure impinged on the supplier (mode 1) or the consumer (mode 2), Council for Trade in Services, Work Programme on Electronic Commerce, S/C/W/68, 31 March 1999, p. 3.

106

Council for Trade in Services, Structure of Commitments for Modes 1, 2, and 3, Background Note by the Secretariat, S/C/W/99, 3 March 1999, excluding financial services commitments. p. 2, Table A1 p. 6; and Electronic Commerce. Market Access Issues—Existing GATS Commitments for Online Supply of Services, Working Party of the Trade Committee, OECD, Paris p. 6.

107

Wunsch-Vincent (2005), p. 80.

108

S/C/W/15/Rev. 1, 20 July 1999, discussed in OECD, ‘Electronic Commerce’, fn. 14.

109

A mode 1 commitment meant relinquishing regulatory control over the service and its supplier to the source country and effectively accepting its consumer protection and privacy laws.

110

Panel, US-Gambling, p. 202 at para 6.285.

111

US, Trade in Services Agreement TiSA Proposal. New Trade in Services Commitment Applicable to All Services, 25 April 2014, https://data.awp.is/filtrala/2014/12/17/19.html (last accessed 21 April 2015). The US proposed seven articles: local presence; local content; local technology; movement of information; open networks, network access and use; electronic authentication and signatures; and exceptions.

112

See Kelsey J and Kilic B, Briefing on US Proposal on E-Commerce, Technology Transfer, Cross-Border Data Flows and Net Neutrality, 17 December 2014, http://www.world-psi.org/sites/default/files/documents/research/briefing_on_TiSA_e-commerce_final.pdf (last accessed 21 April 2015).

113

Bressie et al. (2005), p. 5.

114

US Trade Representative Ron Kirk, Remarks to the Coalition of Service Industries 2012 Global Services Summit, 19 September 2012, https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/speeches/transcripts/2012/September/ustr-kirk-remarks-csi-services-summit-2012 (last accessed 21 April 2015).

115

Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Article X.9 and X.10.

116

Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Article X.1.

117

Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Article X.5.

118

European Commission, Negotiations for a Plurilateral Agreement on Trade in Services, Memorandum, 15 February 2013, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-13-107_en.htm?locale=FR (last accessed 21 April 2015).

119

Pursuant to GATS Article XVIII.

120

The US sensitivities include domestic regulation disciplines and maritime transport and cabotage, while the EU maintains a cultural exception for the content of services, especially audiovisual.

121

Stanica O, International Services Agreement. Towards a New Plurilateral Agreement, European Parliamentary Research Service, http://epthinktank.eu/2013/03/01/international-services-agreement-towards-a-new-plurilateral-trade-agreemeent/ (last accessed 21 April 2015).

122

China Categorically Rejects U.S. Preconditions To Participation In TiSA, Inside US Trade. World Trade Online, 22 November 2013, 31(46). The EU supported China’s expression of interest (EU Backs China Joining Talks on Trade in Services Agreement (TiSA), 31 March 2014, http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/wto/press_corner/all_news/news/2014/20143103_TiSA_press_release_en.htm (last accessed 21 April 2015).

123

https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/gats_factfiction_e.htm (last accessed 21 April 2015).

124

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125

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Titel: From GATS to TiSA: Pushing the Trade in Services Regime Beyond the Limits
verfasst von: Jane Kelsey
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2016
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-29214-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-29215-1

Copyright-Jahr: 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29215-1_6