Gender differences in the impact of ecological awareness on entrepreneurial intent
- Open Access
- 01.12.2025
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Abstract
Introduction
This paper proposes a model that provide evidence about the influence of environmental awareness and gender variables on the entrepreneurial intentions of university students, to properly approach entrepreneurial training in higher education institutions. Additionally, moderating effects of the gender variable are introduced.
This objective aims to advance academic research on entrepreneurship by introducing two novel topics in the literature. From one point of view, the impact of ecological awareness on entrepreneurial intent the analysis has been considered in the research. This analysis is relevant because of the sustainable entrepreneurship has emerged as one of the most dynamic fields due to the growth of for-profit and purpose-driven firms that address environmental, social, and economic problems (Zhang et al., 2024).
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From a second point of view, this paper includes a gender perspective. Women everywhere run significant businesses, generating positive impacts on society (Nevi et al., 2025). Gender equality represents a priority goal of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, particularly in the European Union, where reducing the gender gap in entrepreneurship-related issues, is an aspect linked to inclusive growth. Entrepreneurship is generally perceived as a male-dominated career (Gupta et al., 2009). This theoretical argument is supported by empirical data. The latest global GEM report (GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor), 2023) shows the level of male and female TEA (Total Early-Stage Entrepreneurial Activity) in the 49 economies participating in the Adult Population Survey (APS) of GEM. The absolute gap between men and women in entrepreneurship is 1.5% points, and ownership of established businesses tends to be more male dominated. In the current scenario, where major developed economies are promoting inclusive entrepreneurship, it is relevant to empirically examine whether public and private efforts are continuing or changing the influence of gender roles on entrepreneurial intention.
In addition, this research represents a step towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Some recent research has emphasized the importance of social entrepreneurship in the Sustainable Development Goals (Pereira et al., 2024). This paper, which discusses the influence of environmental awareness and gender on the entrepreneurial intention of young university students, has implications for the SDGs particularly in quality education (SDG 4), gender equality (SDG 5), and responsible consumption and production (SDG 11). Furthermore, focusing our research efforts on entrepreneurship in the young population is a priority because they are more likely to establish new enterprises (GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor), 2023).
However, the evaluation of entrepreneurial intention based on the environmental commitment of younger people (university students) is still in its embryonic stage, especially in the case of the female gender. In the previous years, there has been an upsurge in the number of female-led initiatives both at international and local levels, which suggests a positive trend toward worldwide female university entrepreneurship (Arbulú Ballesteros et al., 2024). With this research proposal about the influence of environmental awareness and gender on the entrepreneurial intention of young university students, we aim to enhance understanding of sustainable growth and inclusive growth concerning gender. Regarding sustainable growth, the latest global GEM report (GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor), 2023) highlights that many entrepreneurs have environmental concerns, especially since the pandemic.
This paper is structured as follows. The next section conducts a theoretical review that allows for the proposal of hypotheses regarding the influence of the environmental awareness variable, entrepreneurial competence, and gender on the entrepreneurial intention of university students. Subsequently, the variables used in the study and the fieldwork conducted for the quantitative research with primary data are explained. Following this, the results of the proposed model are presented using the multivariate statistical technique of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The paper concludes with a discussion of the results and conclusions.
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Environment awareness and entrepreneurial intention
In previous analysis, authors have assessed the validity of the classic models based on entrepreneurial intention (Barba-Sánchez et al., 2022; del Brío González et al., 2022) and different papers have placed their emphasis on the study of the entrepreneurial intention of students using different explanatory variables (Barba-Sánchez et al., 2022; del Brío González et al., 2022; Krueger et al., 2000; Liñan & Chen, 2009; Lüthje & Franke, 2003; Sieger et al., 2018).
In the last decade, intentional models have begun to be criticized due to their lack of adjustment to the changing socioeconomic reality and their static nature (Syed et al., 2020). In regards to the first criticism, today’s society moved toward values which are more socially and environmentally responsible, as evidenced by the notable environmental activism of young adults today. Opportunities arising from technological changes, environment, innovation and even the recent health alerts may affect the intention of individuals to become entrepreneurs (RamosRodríguez et al., 2019). Authors such as Agu (2021) or Vuorio et al. (2018) consider it appropriate to update the traditional entrepreneurial intention models by adding some of these new entrepreneurial opportunities.
Recent studies have demonstrated that the immense and unexploited opportunity that environmental care offers to companies is becoming increasingly evident. Dees (1998) explains that entrepreneurs concerned about environmental issues are primarily a type of entrepreneurs, therefore implying that the factors affecting the entrepreneurial initiative of the latter have influence over the first ones, as well. Nevertheless, the dominant feature of sustainable companies is related to the environmental awareness of their promoters, which allows to identify opportunities in solving problems to satisfy a social necessity (Cardella et al., 2024) as has been analysed by Torres-Díaz et al. (2024) in tourism industry. Thus, the sustainable entrepreneur’s initiative is subject to the main purpose of achieving a social or environmental good for a community, by detecting a neglected problem that may become a business opportunity. However, only a few studies have empirically verified whether environmental awareness can influence the entrepreneurial intention of the individual. Romero-Colmenares and Reyes-Rodríguez (2022) have proposed a model that explains sustainable entrepreneurial intentions among university students but they do not analyse environmental awareness. Peng et al. (2021) consider that additional research is needed to know which factors have influence on responsible entrepreneurship. With regard to university students, Barba-Sánchez et al. (2022) and del Brío González et al. (2022) verify that in the case of this population, who still have a flexible career choice, the perception of environmental opportunities can serve as a motivation to increase their initiative to create a business with an economic and environmental purpose. On the basis of these arguments, we formulate these hypotheses.
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Hypothesis 1. The environmental awareness of university students exerts influence over their entrepreneurial intentions.
Mediating effect
With regard to the second criticism about the static nature of original intentional models, they have not usually considered mediating and moderating relationships among the different variables that may exert indirect influences (Syed et al., 2020). Only the most recent papers have introduced moderating and mediating relationships in the classical intentional models of the entrepreneurial intention (Lechuga Sancho et al., 2022; Maheshwari & Kha, 2022).
Environmental issues are not easy to deal with because they involve several areas of knowledge. In accordance with this argument, people who are environmentally aware and whose actions aim at improving the environment are aware of the need to achieve high levels of competence (Sharma, 2000). As analysed in literature, many individuals show a great concern for the environment, but they admit that this awareness does not always turn into a change in behaviour if they do not have appropriate training for promoting actions. If people feel they can influence the environment with their actions, due to their knowledge of the actions that can resolve the growing environmental problems and the depletion of natural resources, the impact of the observed behavioural change will be greater and, therefore, these people will strengthen their attitude towards action (Cho et al., 2013).
Participation in a sustainable entrepreneurship training programmed is seen as an initial engagement in the sustainable entrepreneurship practice (Germak & Robinson, 2013). Awareness (ecocentric value) and, subsequently, training (knowledge availability and performance control) are the basic requirements to succeed in the development of a sustainable entrepreneurial initiative (Banerjee, 2001; Handfield et al., 2001). Potential entrepreneurs with a great awareness of the creation of ecological value know that they must rely on their high-level training to apply reasonable and scientific methods to transform the intention into a sustainable entrepreneurial behaviour (Kuckertz & Wagner, 2010). It has been proved, within the university field, that the level of understanding and training is a key factor for students in developing their environmental awareness (Miller et al., 2012) and, therefore, in assisting the creation of sustainable companies (Long et al., 2019). Moreover, findings also confirmed that green attitude partially mediates the relationships between environmental value, green self-efficacy, environmental concerns, green citizenship behavior and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions (Zhang et al., 2024). Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:
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Hypothesis 2. The assessment of entrepreneurial competence mediates the relationship between environmental awareness and entrepreneurial intention among university students.
Gender impact
The literature is devoting significant attention to female entrepreneurship. Augmenting the proportion of women in the economy can play a beneficial role both for the individuals involved and the overall well-being of a company. In this scenario female entrepreneurship is an issue of contemporary political interest as gender equality is deemed to contribute to economic growth (De la Torre-Torres et al., 2024).
Although female entrepreneurship is perceived as a necessary solution to empower women within societies, achieve economic diversification, and ensure a knowledge-based economy, traditionally it has been overshadowed by male entrepreneurship, as evident in academic analysis (Al-Qahtani et al., 2022). For instance, the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), perhaps the most prestigious and extensive study on the state of entrepreneurship worldwide, has analysed over 100 countries since 1999; however, it published its first report on female entrepreneurship in 2006 (GEM -Global Entrepreneurship Monitor-, 2023).
Social role theory suggests that women and men are expected to behave according to their gender roles (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Gender roles represent shared beliefs about the actual and desired behaviours of men and women, typically divided into masculine and feminine behaviours (Cialdini & Trost, 1998). Gender roles describe what men and women usually do and set expectations for how they should behave (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Furthermore, social role theory also suggests that men and women internalize gender role attributes and use them as standards for their own behaviours (Eagly et al., 2000). Therefore, individuals are more likely to engage in an activity when they perceive that it aligns with their gender role. Gender roles persist within the organizational environment, although their influence remains quite understudied (Acker, 2006; Cuadrado Guirado et al., 2012).
Applying social role theory to entrepreneurship justifies the issue of women’s lower propensity for entrepreneurship, as it is ingrained in society (Ruiz et al., 2023). This circumstance can influence younger individuals in a way that academic institutions adopt stereotypes, impacting the attitudes and behaviour of female students (Sweida & Reichard, 2013). While sparsely demonstrated in academic literature, authors such as Miranda et al. (2017) revealed that entrepreneurial intention in the academic environment, i.e., within academic institutions, is higher among male academics than females. However, more empirical evidence is needed on this matter as contradictory empirical studies have been identified. Some authors argue that there are no gender differences in their perspective toward entrepreneurship (Díaz-García & Jiménez-Moreno, 2010; Gupta et al., 2009). Similarly, some researchers have found that the gender variable does not have a significant effect on entrepreneurial behaviour (Badri & Hachicha, 2019).
Building on the theoretical argumentation and to empirically assess the effects among university students, we propose the following hypothesis.
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Hypothesis 3. Gender influences the entrepreneurial intention of university students.
Among the reasons that research has put forward to justify the influence of gender on entrepreneurial intention is that women are perceived as entrepreneurs less frequently than men due to their perceived lack of business competence (Wilson et al., 2007). Ventura and Quero (2013) have examined the gap between the actual competence of businesswomen and their perception of their own competencies, stating that, more than differences in actual competence, women undervalue their potential competence for entrepreneurship. In this regard, women decide not to become entrepreneurs due to the perception of a lack of competence for activities perceived as masculine, such as those related to entrepreneurship (Verheul et al., 2012).
In the case of young individuals, the theoretical arguments are similar. Women, especially young women, perceive themselves as having a lower level of competence for entrepreneurship (Wilson et al., 2007). This perception of young women about themselves hinders their entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial behaviour (Marlow & McAdam, 2013). Despite these aligned arguments, a number of empirical studies have shown contradictory results, indicating that the levels of assessment of entrepreneurial capability are not significantly related to gender differences (Murugesan & Jayavelu, 2017). Therefore, empirical evidence requires further investigation on this matter. Thus, based on the theoretical argumentation and to empirically assess the effects among university students, we propose the following hypothesis.
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Hypothesis 4. Gender influences entrepreneurial competition among university students.
Regarding the relationship between gender and environmental awareness, there are no conclusive results on whether individuals of male or female gender are more proactive towards promoting environmental activities. However, the literature has highlighted the existence of a clear gap between environmental concern and ecological behaviour (Homibrook et al., 2015), likely due to the presence of some situational factor or intervention between concern and behaviour that inhibits or encourages sustainable behaviour (Markkula & Moisander, 2012). It is worth noting that, all else being equal, women drive more actions in favour of the environment due to their higher levels of self-transcendence and awareness, i.e., they feel they are contributing to the well-being of the community (Schwartz, 1994). However, men place more importance on achieving a high level of self-promotion, motivated to enhance their personal interests. When the goal is to achieve social recognition, the levels of environmental actions by men are as high as those shown by women. However, when personal identity is valued, the level of awareness and concern among women is higher. In this research, we analyse the level of environmental awareness as a preceding variable of entrepreneurial intention, so it is predictable that women will exhibit a higher level of awareness and concern for activities that may have implications for the environment (Costa et al., 2014). However, there is a gap in the analyses conducted among the younger population. To address this gap and based on theoretical arguments about different environmental awareness between genders, we propose the following hypothesis.
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Hypothesis 5. Gender influences the environmental awareness of university students.
Psychologists have recognized that the relationship between a person’s entrepreneurial competence and their attitudinal outcomes can be more complex than a direct association (O’Neill & Mone, 1998), suggesting the existence of moderators. Applying this contingency perspective to entrepreneurship, it is argued that gender will act as a moderator in the relationship between competence and entrepreneurial intention. Gender has served as a moderating factor in the relationship between entrepreneurial competence and entrepreneurial intention in various studies, as men’s better perception of entrepreneurial competence has led to a greater commitment to becoming entrepreneurs, results that have been confirmed in different research (Bagheri & Lope Pihie, 2014). However, for the case of students, this moderation relationship has been scarcely studied. From the limited papers that have addressed this issue, it is concluded that students’ gender moderates the relationship between students’ entrepreneurial capability and entrepreneurial intention (Elnadi & Gheith, 2021). With these arguments, we propose hypothesis 6.
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Hypothesis 6. Gender moderates the relationship between entrepreneurial competence and entrepreneurial intention among university students.
Environmental awareness and its relationship with sustainable entrepreneurship are still limited in terms of academic analysis (Thelken & de Jong, 2020). This paper proposes that environmental consciousness influences entrepreneurial competence, as the multidisciplinary nature of the environment encourages the improvement of skills to address ecological problems. Similarly, we assume that gender influences ecological awareness.
Authors such as O’Neill & Mone (1998) have proposed the existence of moderating effects in entrepreneurial relationships. In this paper, we argue that men are less environmentally conscious than women. However, even though there are no theoretical references on the matter, we assume that as the level of environmental awareness in men increases, it will be precisely them who seek to enhance their entrepreneurial competence to contribute solutions in this regard. This hypothesis would support the previously mentioned argument that, although women show more environmental awareness, when it comes to concrete actions in favour of the environment, there is no longer a gender difference. Therefore, we propose hypothesis 7.
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Hypothesis 7. Gender moderates the relationship between environmental awareness and entrepreneurial competence among university students.
In summary, the set of proposed hypotheses is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1
Proposed structural model
Methodology
The methodology employed in this study has the following structure: (a) measures employed in the study and its reliability and validity (b) process followed until the reception of the questionnaires; and (c) main characteristics of the sample.
Measuring instruments and description of the variables
For the measurement of the constructs included in the model, we used scales validated by the literature. In Annex I, all items are listed, which have been measured using Likert scales 1–5, where 1 is completely disagree, and 5 is completely agree.
Environmental Awareness (EA): This reflective construct has been assessed using a condensed version of the environmental attitude questionnaire proposed by Milfont and Duckitt (2010), consisting of 5 items.
Entrepreneurial Competencies (EC): This has been measured using a simplified version of the personality test originally developed by King (1985). This author identifies 5 basic traits traditionally associated with an entrepreneurial personality, namely, creativity, internal locus of control, need for achievement, risk propensity, and tolerance for ambiguity. Thus, the indicators of this construct represent different facets, so they are not interchangeable because each indicator captures a specific aspect of the construct’s domain. Taken jointly, as suggested by Hair et al. (2017), the items ultimately determine the meaning of the construct and form the construct using linear combinations. Therefore, researchers typically refer to this type of measurement model as being a formative measurement model (also referred to as Mode B measurement in PLS-SEM). As a consequence, we consider CE in Mode B or formative.
Entrepreneurial Intention (EI): To assess this reflective construct, the scale composed of 6 items developed by Liñan and Chen (2009) has been used.
Gender has been measured dichotomously, with 0 for female and 1 for male.
Environmental Awareness (EA): This reflective construct has been assessed using a summarized version of the environmental attitude questionnaire proposed by Milfont and Duckitt (2010), which is composed of 5 items.
Process followed until the reception of the questionnaires
The target population of the study has been students at the University of Oviedo who were enrolled in an undergraduate degree or a master’s degree. Focusing on the younger population has been a priority of this research because, as argued, they are the ones most likely to create new businesses (GEM -Global Entrepreneurship Monitor-, 2023). According to the university’s web site, <www.uniovi.es>, the total number of students enrolled that academic year was 14,624. Doctoral students, a total of 1,606, have not been included among the target population of study because their programs are vastly different from the undergraduate degree and master’s degree programs and there is a high percentage of international students of different ages, many of whom are writing their doctoral thesis abroad.
Several deliveries were made over the academic year since several students only took modules in one semester. Field work began in October 2018 and lasted until April 2019. During that period, we obtained 1,337 valid questionnaires.
Main characteristics of the sample
Taking the total number of valid questionnaires, 1,337, there is a 2.58% sampling error rate for 95% confidence level, p = q = 0,5. This error rate is low enough to be taken into consideration for a statistical study (Lind et al., 2012).
Analysis and discussion of results
To assess the proposed model in this study, we employed Partial Least Squares (PLS) analysis using SmartPLS 4.0.9.2 software. Before testing the hypotheses (structural model evaluation), we need to evaluate both the overall model fit and the measurement model.
Regarding the assessment of the model fit, our model achieved a Standardized Root Mean Residual (SRMR) below the established limit of 0.08 (Hu & Bentler, 1998), with the highest value obtained being 0.047. Additionally, the Normed Fit Index (NFI) ranged between 0.8 and 0.9 (Mulaik et al., 1989), with the minimum value obtained being 0.879. Thus, we can consider that the model exhibits good goodness of fit.
Since the model consists of two reflective constructs and one formative construct, we began by evaluating the reflective constructs. To assess the measurement model of these constructs, we first examined the individual reliability of items through the analysis of correlation loadings, which should exceed 0.708 (Hair et al., 2017). Almost all items in both constructs meet this criterion, except for two: EA1, which has a loading of 0.707, and EI1, which has a loading of 0.678. In both cases, these items are retained following Hair et al.‘s (2017) recommendations, as they are above 0.401, and removing them would worsen the composite reliability of the respective constructs.
Subsequently, we analysed the reliability and validity of the indicators of the reflective constructs in the model. Table 1 presents indicators assessing the internal consistency and convergent validity of these constructs, demonstrating a good measurement model (Cronbach’s Alpha, Rho A, and CR > 0.7, and AVE > 0.5). It should be noted that in the case of the AVE, as the square of a standardized indicator’s outer loading, their values are indeed higher than the critical value of 0.5 (0.595 and 0.686), but not much higher since, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, there are, in both cases, one indicator loading is next below 0.708 that have been retained following Hair et al.’s (2017) recommendations.
Table 1
Reliability and convergent validity estimators for model constructs (reflective constructs, Model A)
Construct | Cronbach’s Alpha | Rho_A of Dijkstrqa-Henseler | Composite Reliability (CR) | Average Variance Extracted (AVE) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
EA | 0.829 | 0.835 | 0.880 | 0.595 |
EI | 0.906 | 0.913 | 0.929 | 0.686 |
Finally, for reflective constructs, discriminant validity has been assessed. Table 2 presents the Fornell-Larcker criterion, where the square root of the AVE for each construct is greater than the correlation between both constructs in the model. Additionally, the Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio is less than 0.9 (Henseler et al., 2015). Based on both criteria, we can assert that both constructs are distinct concepts, demonstrating their discriminant validity.
Table 2
Discriminant validity of model constructs (reflective constructs, Model A) based on Fornell-Larcker and HTMT
Construct | EA | EI |
|---|---|---|
EA | 0.772 | 0.059 |
EI | 0.046 | 0.829 |
For the formative construct EC, we conducted the necessary measurement validity test following Hair et al. (2017). To do this, we need to ensure that the items comprising it do not exhibit multicollinearity issues. The most used statistical test for this purpose is the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF), and its value should not exceed 3 (Hair et al., 2019). In our case, the highest obtained value is 1.143.
Additionally, we analysed the external weight to assess the importance and relevance of the formative items. In our case, after conducting a bootstrapping process with 10,000 subsamples, the associated weights are significant except for EC2. However, the corresponding external loading is significant with a p-value < 0.001. Therefore, there is empirical support to retain all items in this formative construct.
Once it has been verified that the measurement models of both reflective and formative constructs exhibit satisfactory levels of quality in terms of reliability and validity, we will now analyse the proposed structural model. Following Benitez et al. (2020), we initially rule out the presence of collinearity in the structural model, as all Variance Inflation Factors (VIFs) are below 3 (Hair et al., 2019), with the highest being 1.895 between EC and EI. Subsequently, we examine the significance of path coefficients (see Table 4) through the bootstrapping process (10,000 subsamples) based on confidence interval percentiles (Aguirre-Urreta & Rönkkö, 2018). The results reveal that EC (β = 0.410; p < 0.001) significantly and positively influences the EI of university students, while EA (H1: β=−0.004; p > 0.1) does not significantly influence EI (rejecting hypothesis 1) but does influence EC (β = 0.104; p < 0.05). Regarding Gender, it significantly and negatively influences EA (H3: β=−0.381; p < 0.001), indicating that women’s perception of their environmental awareness is higher than that of men, supporting hypothesis 3. However, this influence turns positive and significant (H6: β = 0.106; p < 0.1) when both variables (EA and Gender) are integrated with respect to EC, indicating a moderating effect of Gender on this relationship.
In addition, Gender significantly and positively influences both EC (H4: β = 0.397; p < 0.001) and EI (H5: β = 0.073; p < 0.1). This can be interpreted to mean that men’s perception of their entrepreneurial intention and competence is higher than that of women. This influence on EI increases when integrated with EC (H7: β=−0.104; p < 0.05), confirming the existence of a moderating effect of Gender in this relationship.
Finally, the model explains 0.222 of the variances in the endogenous construct (EI), indicating a moderate predictive power (Hair et al., 2011). Additionally, observing the individual contribution of each variable through effect sizes (f2) in Table 3, it is noteworthy that EC has a moderate effect on explaining EI (f2 = 0.114), which is close to the 0.15 threshold proposed by Cohen (1988). Furthermore, the direct effect of EA on EI is not significant, given the extremely low f2 value, below the minimum level of 0.02. However, Gender does present f2 values that meet that minimum, especially in its effect on EC and EA.
Table 3
Effects on endogenous constructs
Construct | Direct Effect1 | t-Value2 | p Value2 | Confidence Interval Percentile (PCI) | f2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EI (R2 = 0.222) | |||||
H1: EA | 0.004 | 0.146 | 0.884 | [−0.045, 0.051] | 0.000 |
EC | 0.410 | 12.864 | 0.000 | [0.351, 0.476] | 0.114 |
H5: Gender | 0.093 | 1.791 | 0.073 | [−0.010, 0.194] | 0.002 |
H7: Gender x EC | 0.104 | 2.044 | 0.041 | [0.003, 0.201] | 0.003 |
EC (R2 = 0.050) | |||||
EA | 0.104 | 2.554 | 0.011 | [0.026, 0.186] | 0.007 |
H4: Gender | 0.397 | 7.222 | 0.000 | [0.292, 0.508] | 0.039 |
H6: Gender x EA | 0.106 | 1.772 | 0.076 | [−0.012, 0.224] | 0.003 |
EA (R2 = 0.035) | |||||
H3: Gender | − 0.381 | 7.107 | 0.000 | [−0.488, − 0.278] | 0.037 |
Furthermore, to test the mediation hypothesis, indirect effects have been analysed (Nitzl et al., 2016). As observed in Table 4, the total effect of EA on EI is greater than the direct effect (almost non-existent), but equally not significant (β = 0.047; p > 0.1 and β = 0.004; p > 0.1, respectively). However, the indirect effect is significant (β = 0.043; p < 0.05), suggesting the existence of full mediation by EC, supporting hypothesis 2. This conclusion is corroborated using the Variance Accounted For (VAF) index, which determines the size of the indirect effect in relation to the total effect. Specifically, it can be observed that more than 90% of the total effect exerted by EA on EI is through the mediation of EC, well above the 80% suggested by Hair et al. (2017) to observe full mediation.
Table 4
Summary of the mediating effect test (Nitzl et al., 2016)
Hypotheses | Total effects1 (p Value)2 | Direct effects1 (p Value)2 | Indirect effects | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Path1 (p Value)2 | Percentile confidence interval2 | VAF (%) | |||
H2: EA→EC→EI | 0.047 (0.121) | 0.004 (0.884) | 0.043 (0.012) | [0.011, 0.078] | 91.49 |
Regarding the moderation of Gender in the model, the results from Table 3 show that the interaction between environmental awareness and Gender has a positive and significant effect (H6: β = 0.106; p < 0.1) on entrepreneurial competence, as previously discussed. Thus, we can accept hypothesis 6, asserting that men, with an equal perception of their environmental awareness as women, have a better perception of their entrepreneurial capabilities compared to women. Additionally, as observed in Fig. 2, the different slopes indicate that, for lower levels of environmental awareness, the difference between men and women regarding their entrepreneurial competence diminishes, becoming wider as both genders’ environmental awareness increases. In conclusion, women with higher environmental awareness have less confidence in their entrepreneurial competence, and this will ultimately negatively impact their entrepreneurial intention.
Fig. 2
Plots of the interaction effects between Gender and EA of EC
Moreover, concerning the interaction between entrepreneurial competence and gender, it has a positive and significant effect (H7: β = 0.104; p < 0.05) on entrepreneurial intention (Table 3). Thus, we can also accept moderation hypothesis 7, asserting that men, with an equal perception of their entrepreneurial competence as women, have higher entrepreneurial intention than women. In Fig. 3, it is observed that for lower levels of entrepreneurial competence, both genders have low entrepreneurial intention. However, for higher levels, men clearly exhibit higher entrepreneurial intention compared to women. It appears that the lower entrepreneurial intention in women compared to men is not solely derived from their lack of confidence in their entrepreneurial competence. These results indicate the existence of other gender-related variables that could influence, and it would be worthwhile to explore them in future research.
Fig. 3
Plots of the interaction effects between Gender and EC of EI
In summary, all hypotheses proposed, except for H1 (EA→EI), are supported. Figure 4 displays the path coefficients of the structural model.
Fig. 4
Structural model results
Conclusions
This research provides new evidence about the influence of environmental awareness and gender on the entrepreneurial intention of young university students. Consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the results of this study indicate that young university students perceive it is possible to reconcile environmental care and entrepreneurship. However, this relationship is not direct; rather, it goes through having entrepreneurial competence. In this sense, the findings support the conclusions obtained by Aurellia and Nuringsih (2023), indicating that entrepreneurial education for students to enhance their self-efficacy contributes to increasing their interest in sustainable entrepreneurship that respects the environment. Nevertheless, this interest is not homogeneous in terms of gender. Despite women having a higher environmental awareness, they perceive themselves as less prepared to undertake entrepreneurship and consequently have lower entrepreneurial intention. Consistent with the results of the latest GEM report (GEM -Global Entrepreneurship Monitor-, 2023), it can be noted that there still exists a gender gap in the field of entrepreneurship. The efforts made by various public and private entities to eliminate this gap seem to remain unsuccessful. The results suggest that these entities, especially universities as the focus of this study, should enhance entrepreneurial competence training, given its mediating role, to improve entrepreneurial intention.
However, despite the youth of the respondents, a culture based on traditional gender roles still seems to persist, with women oriented toward the care and well-being of the more vulnerable. Perhaps the challenge is not to attempt to change these deeply ingrained social roles, but to direct entrepreneurial promotion and education towards the consideration of sustainable entrepreneurship, in line with the proposal by Thelken and de Jong (2020). Thus, entrepreneurship would cease to be seen from a mercantilist perspective and instead be viewed to achieve the common good. This shift is not only appropriate but also necessary for achieving a sustainable economic model, ensuring an egalitarian society that includes and integrates vulnerable groups, such as people with disabilities (Barba-Sánchez et al., 2024).
Regarding the moderating effects of gender in the model, it is revealing to note the different perceptions of the environment that men and women seem to have. This observation confirms the conclusions drawn by Elnadi and Gheith (2021) regarding the relationship between competence and entrepreneurial intention. While men consider themselves better prepared to undertake entrepreneurship as their environmental awareness increases, viewing the environment as a sustainable business opportunity, women need to perceive themselves as having a higher level of entrepreneurial competence than men to venture into entrepreneurship. In any case, their greater environmental awareness does not seem to drive them towards entrepreneurship. These novel results suggest that the traditional social orientation of women towards altruistic activities may be related to these difficulties in seeing potential business opportunities in environmental care. This situation is exacerbated in the Spanish context, where the social image of entrepreneurs has even been called into question by public institutions. In this regard, the university’s role in changing these stereotypes needs to be intensified through specific programs targeting women. To harness the entrepreneurial potential of the entire population and achieve an inclusive economy, it is crucial to change the mercantilist conception of women regarding business activities, in favour of a more social vision that aligns with their environmental awareness. This can be achieved through effective communication campaigns and awareness policies highlighting the socio-economic relevance of entrepreneurship for society. New paradigms based on the monetization of social benefits, not just economic-financial ones, can be useful for this purpose.
The main limitations of this study lie in the data collection method, the selected sample, and the individual-level boundaries of this paper. First, since the data were collected solely through students’ self-declarations, it would be advisable to conduct a longitudinal study to confirm whether entrepreneurial intention eventually translates into entrepreneurial behaviour, aligning with the suggestion by Thelken and de Jong (2020). Second, as most participants were university students and, therefore, very young, the results might differ for other age groups. Future research should corroborate the conclusions obtained here for different age cohorts, in line with the generational study conducted by (Nichols & Holt, 2023). Third, the data were obtained from only one Spanish university, so future research should analyse other universities in different countries to verify the generalizability of the conclusions of this study. Finally, future research could differentiate between ecological entrepreneurial intention and other types of entrepreneurships to confirm the persistence of the gender gap in this case as well. Undoubtedly, further research is needed to delve into the reasons for these gender differences in seemingly egalitarian cultural and generational contexts.
Declarations
Competing interests
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