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2018 | Buch

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GNSS Environmental Sensing

Revolutionizing Environmental Monitoring

verfasst von: Joseph Awange

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Buchreihe : Environmental Science and Engineering

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik"

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Über dieses Buch

This book is the second edition of Environmental Monitoring using GNSS and highlights the latest developments in global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). It features a completely new title and additional chapters that present emerging challenges to environmental monitoring—“climate variability/change and food insecurity.”
Since the publication of the first edition, much has changed in both the development and applications of GNSS, a satellite microwave remote sensing technique. It is the first tool to span all four dimensions of relevance to humans (position, navigation, timing and the environment), and it has widely been used for positioning (both by military and civilians), navigation and timing. Its increasing use is leading to a new era of remote sensing that is now revolutionizing the art of monitoring our environment in ways never imagined before.
On the one hand, nearly all GNSS satellites (Global Positioning System (GPS), Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), Galileo and Beidou) have become operational, thereby providing high-precision, continuous, all-weather and near real- time remote sensing multi-signals beneficial to environmental monitoring. On the other hand, the emerging challenges of precisely monitoring climate change and the demand for the production of sufficient food for ever-increasing populations are pushing traditional monitoring methods to their limits.
In this regard, refracted GNSS signals (i.e., occulted GNSS signals or GNSS meteorology) are now emerging as sensors of climate variability, while the reflected signals (GNSS reflectometry or GNSS-R) are increasingly finding applications in determining, e.g., soil moisture content, ice and snow thickness, ocean heights, and wind speed and direction, among others. Furthermore, the increasing recognition and application of GNSS-supported unmanned aircraft vehicles (UAV)/drones in agriculture (e.g., through the determination of water holding capacity of soil) highlights the new challenges facing GNSS.
As such, this new edition three new chapters address GNSS reflectometry and applications; GNSS sensing of climate variability; and the applications in UAV/drones. Moreover, it explores the application of GNSS to support integrated coastal zone management.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Environmental Monitoring

Abstract

Environmental monitoring has been defined as the observation and study of the environment. This entails objective observations that produce sound data, which in turn provide valuable information that is useful, e.g., in supporting the protection of public water supplies, hazardous, non-hazardous, and radioactive waste management, natural resource protection and management, weather forecasting, and global climate change (Artiola et al, Environmental monitoring and characterization, 2004, [1]) studies. From such a definition, what exactly does the term “monitoring” mean within an environmental perspective? Is it synonymous to measuring or observing? A sound definition of monitoring is essential at this point so as to clearly understand the theme of this book, which intents to highlight the uses of GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) satellites, which have at times been largely regarded as military assets, to monitor the environment. This can be achieved by using GNSS signals to measure and observe changes in the environment.

Joseph Awange

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

Frontmatter

Chapter 2. Modernization of GNSS

Abstract

Throughout history, position (location) determination has been one of the fundamental tasks undertaken by humans on a daily basis. Each day, one deals with positioning, be it going to work, the market, sports, church, mosque, temple, school or college, one has to start from a known location and move towards a known destination. Usually the start and end locations are known, since the surrounding physical features form a reference upon which we navigate ourselves. In the absence of these reference features, for instance in the desert or at sea, one then requires some tool that can provide knowledge of one’s position.

Joseph Awange

Chapter 3. The Global Positioning System

Abstract

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the oldest and most widely used GNSS system, and as such will be extensively discussed in the first part of this book.

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Chapter 4. Mathematical Modelling

Abstract

When talking about mathematical models, most readers normally associate this concept with a very complex notion.

Joseph Awange

Chapter 5. Environmental Surveying and Surveillance

Abstract

In this section, we discuss the quantitative and qualitative data that could be collected using GNSS satellites, and in so doing, attempt to answer the question “what can GNSS satellites deliver that are of use to environmental monitoring?” The observed parameters necessary for environmental monitoring vary, depending upon the indicators being assessed. Some are physical variables such as changes in soil patterns, vegetation, rainfall, water levels, temperature, deforestation, solar and UV radiation. Others are chemical variables, e.g., pH, salinity, nutrients, metals, pesticides, while others are biological variables, e.g., species types, ecosystem health, and indicator species.

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Chapter 6. Data Processing and Adjustment

Abstract

In this chapter, the necessary data processing or post-processing following field measurements is presented. First, the general procedures undertaken to process baseline data are considered, followed by the adjustment of network observations.

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Chapter 7. Basics of Galileo Satellites

Abstract

Since their inception, GPS satellites have been the primary GNSS (see Chap. 2), and in doing so, have attracted global usage. The Russian GLONASS has to a lesser extent been used, but it has faced maintenance problems and as such, has not been able to compete effectively with GPS. Both systems, however, have one thing in common, and that is, they are controlled by the military of their respective countries. Users from other countries have been at the mercies of the two providers and therefore do not have autonomous control or a say in the integrity of the systems. Integrity is the capability of a system to provide a timely alert to the user when it fails to meet the thresholds of accuracy for which it is designed. Similar to the two satellite providers above, the Chinese BeiDou is also to a large extent designed for military purposes.

Joseph Awange

Applications to Environmental Monitoring

Frontmatter

Chapter 8. GNSS Maps in Environmental Monitoring

Abstract

Traditionally, maps have been produced by plotting features on paper at a given scale, calling upon a variety of cartographic skills. The advent of computers, satellite data, and geographical information system (GIS), however, has revolutionized the art of map production, with the modern day cartographer required to master computer skills for the purpose of not only the production, but also the management of digital maps.

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Chapter 9. GNSS Remote Sensing of the Environment

Abstract

GNSS satellites such as GPS are playing an increasingly crucial role in tracking low earth orbiting (LEO) remote sensing satellites at altitudes below 3000 km with accuracies of better than 10 cm [2]

Joseph Awange

Chapter 10. GNSS Reflectometry and Applications

Abstract

When positioning with GNSS, multipath signal is a reflected GNSS signal that is a nuisance and as such needs to be eliminated. Whereas this reflected signal on the one hand is a nuisance for positioning, for environmental monitoring purposes, it could be useful in monitoring sea-wind retrieval, seawater salinity detection, ice-layer density measurements and other remote sensing applications (e.g., topography, soil moisture and vegetation), see, (Yang et al. GNSS-R data processing software and test analysis. Inside GNSS, Sept/Oct 2009, pp 40–45, 2009) e.g., [2].

Joseph Awange

Chapter 11. Climate Change and Weather Related Impacts

Abstract

In order to address the contributions of GNSS to monitor climate change caused by increase in temperature, a distinction between weather and climate on one hand, and climate variability and climate change on the other hand is essential.

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Chapter 12. GNSS Sensing of Climate Variability

Abstract

Poor reliability of radiosonde records across most developing countries in the southern hemisphere imposes serious challenges in understanding the structure of upper-tropospheric and lower-stratospheric (UTLS) region, i.e., the tropopause. The Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (COSMIC) mission launched in April 2006 has overcome many observational limitations inherent in conventional atmospheric sounding instruments.

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Chapter 13. Environmental Impact Assessment

Abstract

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is defined by Munn [2] as the need to identify and predict the impact on the environment and on man’s health and well-being of legislative proposals, policies, programs, projects, and operational procedures, and to interpret and communicate information about the impact.

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Chapter 14. Water Resources

Abstract

With a growing population and a drying climate, Australia - like many rich nations - is running out of water. Solutions are not easy nor cheap ... and may require cities to tap their sewers.

Joseph Awange

Chapter 15. Coastal Resources

Abstract

The extreme importance of coastal zones for countries with highly-populated coastal areas has been discussed in Goncalves and Awange, J Surv Eng, 2007, [2] who highlight the concerns about their future, particularly on the state of their natural resources that provide life support and opportunities for economic development and tourism for these countries (Clarck, JR, Integrated management of coastal zones, 1992, [3]). However, one of the main environmental problems facing coastal areas the world over is that of coastal erosion, which includes, e.g., beach erosion and other natural and anthropogenic environmental factors that are present along the shoreline.

Joseph Awange

Chapter 16. Land Management

Abstract

Land provides the base upon which social, cultural and economic activities are undertaken and as such is of significant importance in environmental monitoring. Social, cultural and economic activities have to be planned and managed in such a way that the sustainable use of land resources is enhanced. Sustainable land use ensures that economic and socio-cultural activities do not benefit at the expense of the environment (see Sect. 13.5). Monitoring of changes in land through indicators could help in policy formulation and management issues for the betterment of the environment. Some of the vital indicators for land management include vegetation, soil quality and health, biosolids and waste disposed on land, land evaluation, land use planning, contaminated land, integrity of the food supply chain, mine closure completion criteria, and catchment management, in particular water balance, salinity, eutrophication, and riparian/wetland vegetation. This chapter presents the possibility of using GNSS satellites to enhance the monitoring of some of these indicators.

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Chapter 17. Disaster Management

Abstract

Natural disasters, whether of meteorological origin such as cyclones, floods, tornadoes and droughts or of having geological nature such as earthquakes and volcanoes, are well known for their devastating impacts on human life, economy and environment, and are also formidable physical constraints in our overall efforts to develop and utilize the natural resources on a sustainable basis (Jayaraman, Chandrasekhar, Rao, Acra Astronaut 40(2–8):291–325, 1997, [1]).

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Chapter 18. Environmental Pollution

Abstract

There exist various definitions to the word pollution depending on one’s jurisdiction and the laws of a particular country.

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Chapter 19. Animals and Vegetation Protection and Conservation

Abstract

This chapter presents ways in which the emerging GNSS methods could be useful in supporting management and conservation efforts of animals and vegetation . Ways in which animals and vegetation impact on the environment, and vice versa, i.e., the ways in which the environment impact, through human-induced anthropogenic activities, on the animals and vegetation are considered. Specific emphasis on how GNSS could support these efforts through monitoring, thereby enabling remedial measures to be undertaken are presented.

Joseph Awange

Chapter 20. Unmanned Aircraft Vehicles

Abstract

In recent decades, Unmanned Aircraft Vehicles (UAVs) became a popular household name that caught the attention over the world.

Joseph Awange

Backmatter

Titel: GNSS Environmental Sensing
verfasst von: Joseph Awange
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-58418-8
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-58417-1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58418-8