Groundwater Resource Management Planning Strategies

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Contamination of Indian Groundwater and Associated Health Effects

   Shikha Malik, Sufiyan Mirza, Dhananjay Singh Shyamal, Absar Ahmad Kazmi

   Abstract

   Most of the population depends on groundwater to fulfill various needs in developing countries. In developing nations like India, groundwater contamination from geological and anthropogenic sources has become one of the main issues. In many Indian states, incidences of groundwater contamination have been reported in past years. Therefore, it is necessary to comprehensively know the sources of the contaminant, categories of contaminants, cause of contamination, the affected area and reported health issues in India. So that corrective measures can be taken to deal with the issue. The present study has reviewed the reported groundwater contamination issues in different parts of India. The study also systematically reviewed the sources of contamination, categories of the contaminant and its associated health impacts, and reported health problems and risks in India due to groundwater contamination. Further, the study has summarised the current initiative taken by the government to tackle the situation. Groundwater exceeded the concentration of fluoride, heavy metals, nitrate, and iron in different locations of India due to geogenic and anthropogenic sources. Significant health problems and risks have been identified among people consuming contaminated groundwater in affected areas.

3. Chapter 2. Heavy Metals in Groundwater: Environmental and Health Perspectives

   Samuel Ukpong Okon, Chiamaka Linda Mgbechidinma, Lynda-Uta Edet Okon, Ita Ewa-Oboho, Unwana Sunday Koffi, Paul Sunday Udom

   Abstract

   Groundwater supplies potable water, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions of the Earth. It is an essential component of the ecological and geological environment, directly influencing human life. While a certain concentration of heavy metals in groundwaters is essential for human metabolism, the excessive consumption of these metals might pose a risk to human health if their concentration is beyond a specific threshold. Exposure to high concentrations of heavy metals can lead to severe neurological disorders and potentially death, following their ability to cause a range of harmful health implications that have attracted global attention. Heavy metal contamination of groundwater frequently evades detection and remains concealed from the public. However, this issue has received significant international attention in recent years, as alarming reports from multiple agencies have highlighted the widespread distribution of heavy metals in groundwater. Considering the increasing significance of examining the potential health risks linked to heavy metals, this chapter reviews groundwater pollution, including sources, associated health risk implications and assessment. Strategic planning and comprehensive management practices are recommended to effectively address the human-health implications of heavy metals in groundwater.

4. Chapter 3. Heavy Metals Pollution in the Water, Toxicity and Remedial Measures

   Esmaeil Allahkarami, Ebrahim Allahkarami

   Abstract

   Managing water resources, treating wastewater effectively, and addressing the diverse range of pollutants are critical for achieving sustainable development and ensuring a clean water supply for the growing global population. Heavy metals are widely recognized for their toxicity to living organisms. These metals pose a threat due to their bio-accumulative nature and high solubility in aquatic environments. Human exposure to heavy metals through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact poses severe health risks, affecting vital organs and leading to diseases like muscular dystrophy and cancer. It is crucial to manage and treat wastewater effectively to reduce heavy metal concentrations and protect human well-being. Remediation techniques for heavy metals contamination include phytoremediation, bioremediation, chemical precipitation, coagulation and flocculation, ion exchange, electrochemical techniques, membrane, and adsorption. In the pursuit of effective heavy metal removal from wastewater, various methods have emerged, each offering distinct advantages. The choice of technique depends on factors like the type and concentration of heavy metals, site characteristics, and environmental and economic considerations. A combination of these methods may be utilized for effective remediation, focusing on proper waste disposal and compliance with regulatory requirements.

5. Chapter 4. Nature Base Sustainable Solution for Heavy Metals Toxicity and Its Impacts on Humans and Plants Health

   Ratna Chauhan, Sanjay Sarjerao Kale, Ratan Singh, Dheeraj Rathore, Bernard R. Glick, Indra Jeet Chaudhary

   Abstract

   Urbanization and industrial development are the major contributors to global environmental pollution, especially heavy metals. Metals are typically a part of soil; some are beneficial to plants, while some are toxic to both humans and plants. Once higher concentrations of metals enter into the environment, they become toxic. Then only plants can be removed by accumulation and detoxification processes. Nowadays, heavy metal contamination is a global problem, particularly in developing nations like India. Heavy metal toxicity reported worldwide has caused harmful effects on life, including plants and animals. Therefore, the chapter focuses on sources of heavy metals and their influences on plant and human health. This chapter also focuses on metal remediation technologies and the metal absorption capabilities of urban tree species. The technique identification of the higher metal accumulation capability of trees will be helpful for metal remediation from urban areas’ environments (air, water, and soil). Because trees can store elements long-term, we can recreate historical changes in heavy metals (HMs) concentrations in ecosystems. Therefore, this chapter will provide information on minimizing HMs from air, soil, and water, as well as human health impacts and environmental sustainability.

6. Chapter 5. Heavy Metals in the Environment: Sources, Fate, and Health Implications

   Mamilla Vijaya Kumar, Hemadri Prasad Raju

   Abstract

   The abundance of heavy metals in the environment can be attributed to their natural occurrence as well as their numerous uses in agriculture, domestic and industrial sectors. Industrial untreated wastewater and other untreated water sources often contain high concentrations of heavy metals. When these untreated water and wastewaters are utilized for irrigation, heavy metals may build up in agricultural soil and poison crop plants. Heavy metal pollution of soils presents major risks to the ecosystem and can be harmful to consumers through skin contact and ingestion. The level, mode of exposure, chemical species, and age, gender, and nutritional status of the individual are among the many factors that influence the toxicity of heavy metals, because of their high level of toxicity, As, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Hg are regarded as priority metals with relevance to public health. Since certain metallic elements are known to harm organs even at lower exposure levels, they are classified as systemic intoxicants. The current book chapter discusses heavy metal pollution sources, the toxicological effects of heavy metals on human health, and the assessment of health risks to humans.

7. Chapter 6. Heavy Metal Pollution in Groundwater: Environmental and Health Concerns in Gujarat, India

   Barathan Balaji Prasath

   Abstract

   Groundwater is an essential resource found within the Earth’s crust in underground reservoirs called aquifers and is necessary for the provision of clean water worldwide. However, there has been a growing concern over the sustainable use of groundwater due to increasing population and industrialization. Over-extraction and pollution of groundwater resources have led to depletion and deterioration causing threats to human life and ecosystem viability. Some human activities such as industrial practices, agricultural practices, wrong waste disposal, and hazardous materials among others have introduced harmful pollutants and chemicals into groundwater leading to long term damage on its quality as well as availability. In Gujarat, heavy metals in ground water pose a high risk to people’s health. Neurological disorders, kidney damage even cancer may be caused by exposure to heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cadmium or mercury. For instance, there must be comprehensive health risk assessments carried out so that concentrations of heavy metals can be determined in subsurface water thereby introducing suitable remediation actions towards ensuring safe drinking water sources. To comprehend potential dangers posed by presence of certain heavy metals in drinking water and consequently introduce relevant mitigation measures it calls for a deep evaluation on their health risks associated with their presence. This paper discusses migration pathways of heavy metals in Gujarat’s groundwaters taking into account environmental factors that affect their movement. There are several methods used for removing heavy metals including adsorption, membrane based methods, chemical precipitation method involving precipitation coagulation flocculation process, electrochemical method or photo catalytic processes. By addressing these issues, we can develop innovative ideas and research approaches for future investigations.

8. Chapter 7. The Importance of Plants for Environmental Health and Water Quality

   Mangesh Vedpathak, Balbhim Chavan, Indra Jeet Chaudhary

   Abstract

   The plant is one of the essential life forms on Earth for environmental sustainability and groundwater purification. Biotic and abiotic components of environment are relatively connected with each others. Plants of all sizes and shapes were present in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Some examples include trees, mosses, ferns, vines, grasses, shrubs, herbs, flowering plants, and green algae. The plants contribute significantly to the environment and ecological equilibrium. They are essential elements to our environment and maintain ecological balance. Plants and animals have habitats in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, such as the ocean, reservoirs, forests, grasslands, mountains, and deserts. Additionally, plants supply living things with the three fundamental necessities of food, clothing, and shelter. In addition to providing us with food and clean air daily, plants play a crucial role in maintaining a healthy ecology. As a result, trees are the primary food source for all living things. In addition, they provide us with oxygen, medicines, fuel, wood, recreation, industrial goods, preservatives, pesticides, and other supplies. Plants make our environment better by eliminating air pollution and groundwater recharged. This chapter focuses on the role of plants in a sustainable environment and water quality.

9. Chapter 8. Risks of Groundwater Contamination to the Environment and Human Health

   Alisha Kakkar, Sudesh Kumar

   Abstract

   Underground water is a vital element in the progress of any region, serving as a primary source of drinkable, farming, and factory water. Historically, there was a belief that rock deposits and topsoil, functioning as filtration agents, shielded subsurface water from contamination. Groundwater pollution is a widespread issue that profoundly affects the physical health of individuals and the environment. Typically, research on subsurface water contamination encompasses the empirical comprehension of botanical, physical, and chemical methods that govern the course and development of pollutants in the subsurface water. Elevated chemical levels in clean water can present a health risk. Public health research has demonstrated that inadequate potable water quality, acting as the primary transmission pathway, has been accountable for numerous water-related illnesses. Various microbes and artificial chemical agents possess the capacity to cause underground water contamination. Potable water that harbors enzymes and bacteria can result in diseases like jaundice or gastrointestinal infection. Preventive actions are generally more accessible and cost-effective than remedial actions for subsurface water pollution. Selecting suitable treatment methods relies on precise site conditions and frequently considers remedy objectives related to environmental safety and human well-being. Hence, this book chapter focuses on an in-depth analysis of the health and environmental impacts of toxic metals like lead, cadmium, and arsenic. Various techniques to detect groundwater contamination and their remedial methods are also well-documented. It also presents future research directions in the field of groundwater contamination.

10. Chapter 9. History of Water Pollutants and Emerging Pollutants

    Gagan Matta, Gaurav Pant, Sushil B. Kapoor, Reetesh Sah, Kanchan Deoli Bahukhandi, D. P. Uniyal, Pawan Kumar, Anjali Nayak, Ujjwal Gulaiya

    Abstract

    Life on earth depends on water because it is a necessity for life. Several aspects of our life rely on water a lack thereof—and it could be said that the use of water is the foundation upon which our entire civilization has been built. The contamination of water is a big issue that affects the entire world. All across the world, it impacts water used for drinking and different water bodies. As a result, it damages both the environment as a whole and the health and wellbeing of human beings. This chapter looked at how different water resources are used and affected during the different civilizations and how water polltants has affected the quality of water and public health over time. The problem that mankind currently faces is how to obtain drinkable water for people and livestock, in addition to how to handle the wastages we generate. This problem was first brought about by agriculture and the expansion of human habitation.

11. Chapter 10. Approaches to Evaluate the Human Health Risk of Arsenic via Drinking Groundwater

    Wiyada Nilkarnjanakul, Srilert Chotpantarat

    Abstract

    Groundwater pollution with arsenic (As) is occurrence in many countries in Asia such as China, India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Drinking water is a major pathway that can cause the potential health effects depending on the As species and its concentration, solubility form, magnitude of exposure, and individual factors. Estimation of risk is mainly considered by health risk assessment. Deterministic risk and probabilistic can be used to estimate risk value following the USEPA guide under the considering situation, but Monte Carlo modelling can simulate many cases of output as randomly sampling from probabilistic distribution to make a decision for minimizing risk. Furthermore, the uncertainty of information analysis can be reduced while sensitivity analysis can generate a high effect on the input variable. Both tools can give some different advantages depending on the selection of user and limitation of data resources. Meanwhile, the investigated bioindicator is better able to know the actual level of As in the receptor. The evidence of exposure to other As sources such as the behavior of groundwater consumption, occupation and food consumption should be concerned to reduce the overestimation. Considering exposure scenarios among sources, groundwater contamination, and receptors is a challenge for the relevant organizations. In addition, more attention should be paid to the monitoring and protection plan for vulnerable groups.

12. Chapter 11. A Comprehensive Review of Conventional Methods and Some Novel Materials for Removing Arsenic from Contaminated Water

    Rupkamal Chetia, Shreemoyee Bordoloi, Surajit Konwer

    Abstract

    Arsenic is considered as one of the most carcinogenic water pollutants found in the atmosphere, soils, rocks, natural waters and organisms. Presence of arsenic even in low concentration in drinking water is considered as carcinogen because consume of arsenic for a long term can cause skin, lung, bladder, liver and kidney cancer. This review article focuses on the background history of arsenic occurrences in the environment and examines both established and advanced removal techniques for its removal, including oxidation, coagulation/precipitation, adsorption, membrane processes, ion exchange and other techniques. In addition, a brief account of the application of various cutting-edge materials for arsenic removal, such as conducting polymers, and metal organic frameworks/quantum dots. It also discusses several promising nano-adsorbents such as iron oxide/hydroxide nanoparticles, titanium dioxide, zinc oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes etc. highlighting their pros and cons of each in terms of arsenic removal. The discussion also covers emerging functional materials like graphene, metal organic frameworks, zeolites and other such impending materials. The article also highlights the need for arsenic removal technology that is simple, user-friendly, cost-effective, low-maintenance, highly efficient in the field, and accessible to low-income communities.

13. Chapter 12. Heavy Metal Concentration Along the Musi River—A Case Study

    Blessy Ganduri, Udaya Laxmi Gakka, Vidyasagarachary Dasoju

    Abstract

    The perineal River Musi is flowing from centre of the state capital city and bifurcating in to twin cities Hyderabad and Secunderabad. Every day the River Musi is carrying loads of domestic and industrial waste (effluents) along with water. The groundwater quality is assessed by determining the content of heavy metals like Al, As, Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni and Mn. The life sustainability of the ecological system is dependent on the concentration of these heavy metals, which is life threatening when they are above their standard permissible limits. The discharge from industrial effluents and domestic waste along the Musi River are the main source of heavy metals in groundwater. Added to this the slow movement of surface water in the river accumulates and precipitates the heavy metals.

    The adverse impacts on local water bodies and shallow aquifers on untreated and or partially treated waste water used for irrigation have been significantly observed. This effect is observed in the vicinity of Musi River making the ground water unsuitable for domestic or agricultural purposes. Hence, there is an urgent need to find the solution to this problem with a suitable plan and an achievable strategy. Bio-remediation in the surface water bodies could check the depletion and contamination of aquifers for sustainable use. This can be achieved with an experimental strategy of excessive plantation along the river banks.

14. Chapter 13. Groundwater Quality, Pollution by Heavy Metals and Its Implication for Human Health Risk in Onitsha Urban, Southeastern Nigeria

    G. N. Anachuna, T. N. Nganje, A. Edet, C. I. Adamu, Lynda-Uta Edet Okon, D. O. Inyang, E. A. Kudamnya

    Abstract

    This study examines the fluctuation in the quality of groundwater, the degree of pollution caused by Potentially Toxic Metals (PTMs), and possible risks to human health in Onitsha urban, southeastern Nigeria. The results indicated that compared with World Health Organization (WHO) recommended standards, the groundwater is fresh, slightly acidic, and unsuitable for drinking as regards to K⁺, NO₃–, Cd, Mn, Pb, and Se. During the dry season, the water is classified as outstanding to good quality while in the wet season; the shallow and a few deep groundwater have poor to extremely poor quality. Based on the degree of contamination/pollution, in the wet season, the groundwater is of low pollution and no risk. However, the water becomes extremely polluted and is considered harmful to the health of children and adults if consumed in the dry season. The calculated indices, including contamination index (C_d), heavy metal pollution index (HMPI), and Water Quality Index (WQI), showed a strong and positive correlation, indicating that similar geological factors and input sources influence them. An assessment of health risks using the hazard index (HI) showed that children had a higher exposure to non-carcinogenic health risks during the wet season. Approximately 45% of the HI values exceeded the danger limit of 1, with nitrate (NO₃⁻) pollution making a substantial contribution. The primary sources of nitrate pollution are natural and manmade activities. These include soil leachates resulting from decomposed organic matter, agricultural runoff caused by using fertilizers, and inadequate septic and waste disposal systems. An elevated concentration of NO₃⁻ exceeding the allowable level, constitutes a major health threat and of concern. Methemoglobinemia is a widely recognized health problem associated with nitrates and is known to affect children. It is a deadly disease characterized by cyanosis and caused by bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract. Hence, treating, monitoring, managing, and enhancing the region's groundwater resources is imperative while safeguarding the well-being of individuals residing within the research area.

15. Chapter 14. Source Approximation of Heavy Metals in the Groundwater Regime of Wardha Valley Coalfields, Central India: A Geospatial Approach

    Priyadarshan S. Ganvir, Rajeeva Guhey

    Abstract

    The groundwater in and around active and abandoned coalmines has been always obstinately under the menace of contamination. The central India’s well-established coalfields lineated along the Wardha River are also under similar menace. It is judiciously comprehensible that a sincere approach for the monitoring and management of the groundwater is anticipated. The geospatial techniques have confirmed its potentiality in various sectors including groundwater studies. The present work is to comprehend the heavy metals’ contamination within groundwater regime of the study area and its source approximation by means of geospatial techniques. In 2019, 45 groundwater samples for pre and post-monsoon each were considered from the study area to outline the groundwater regime. After pilot investigation, the groundwater was analysed for Aluminium, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Iron, Nickel, lead and Zinc. The groundwater samples have evidently manifested the contamination of Cadmium, Iron, Nickel and Lead at certain locations. Towards attainment of an accurate spatial depiction of contamination, an Ordinary Kriging method has been employed for obtaining interpolation and prediction standard error maps for identified contaminants. The base map was so systematized that the metal’s enrichment and paucity in the groundwater is easily comparable with the lithology and relief of the study area. The consequent maps indicated the contamination hotspots in the proximity of the active coalfields and lithology constituting rock strata belonging to Barakar formation. These spatial depictions of the contaminations were then confirmed by evidences obtained from the petrology of the selected rock samples from the identified area. The geospatial approach not only elucidated the dispersal of heavy metals in the groundwater but also aided in identifying their both spatial and temporal sources. The heavy metals’ toxicity in terms of bioaccumulation is an established fact. The source approximation and elucidated dispersal pattern of heavy metals in the groundwater, provides greater and better likelihoods to hinder their bioaccumulation.

16. Chapter 15. Heavy Metal Contamination and Health Risk Assessment in and Around the Pallikaranai Marshland, Tamil Nadu, India

    N. M. Swetha, S. Maniyarasan, A. Ramachandran, M. L. Anusha, R. R. Krishnamurthy

    Abstract

    The study aimed to evaluate water quality and conduct a health risk assessment based on heavy metal contamination levels in and around the Pallikaranai marshland Chennai. A total of 10 water samples that were collected on september 2022 during Southwest Monsoon, the samples are subjected to analysis using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). Various physico-chemical parameters, including such as Depth, pH, electrical conductivity (Ec), total dissolved solids (TDS), oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity, and temperature, were measured. The observed high pH value indicated an alkaline nature of the wetland water. Additionally, trace elements like iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), and chromium (Cr) were assessed, with Fe and Cr displaying higher concentrations. The present study investigating the concentrations of these toxic elements in water bodies is a key contributor to water pollution. The findings show that the Perungudi dumps, unchecked sewage flow, and industrial waste are causing a lot of aquatic weeds to grow in the marshes. These weeds are harming the plants and animals living there. These pollutants release toxins that can ultimately enter the human food chain, posing health risks to the local population and broader ecosystem. Despite the essential role of water as a natural resource, it is concerning that some individuals continue to misuse and mismanage this invaluable creation of nature.

17. Chapter 16. Assessing Heavy Metal Contents in Groundwater of South Kamrup Region (Assam), India and Its Impact on Human Health and Environment Using GIS

    Jayakrishna Bhuyan, Snehasish Choudhury, Dharitri Choudhury

    Abstract

    Groundwater is indeed vital for ecosystems and socio-economic stability. It supports the growth of plants and provides habitats for various organisms, contributing to ecological balance. Additionally, it serves as a reliable source of drinking water for communities and fuels agricultural activities, thereby enhancing socio-economic stability within nations. Presently, the rapid extension of anthropogenic activities including urbanization, industrialization and agricultural modernization has been continuously deteriorating the physicochemical qualities of underground water resulting adverse effect on human health and environment respectively. The industrial wastes are the principal factors for the degradation of groundwater quality as this act like a source of heavy metal pollutant. This research focused on the assessment of Heavy metal contents in groundwater and its impact on human health and surrounding environment of industrial areas in South Kamrup Region of Assam, India. To achieve this goal, samples of groundwater are collected from various industrial sites of Palasbari,Bijoynagar, Mirza, Loharghat, Rani and Dharapur area of south Kamrup in pre monsoon season, January, 2024 and are analyzed for physiochemical properties such as pH, TDS ( Total dissolve Solids) and major Heavy metal contents (As, Cd, Pb, Mn,)in laboratory by applying FL/SOP/ICPMS-01 method based on APHA 23rd Ed.2017 at FARE LABS private Limited, M.G road, Gurugram. Result shows that heavy metals concentration in all groundwater samples is fall under the current drinking water standard given by WHO, 2022. Findings show that the maximum HPI (Heavy Metal Pollution Index) value is estimated from the ground water sample of Mirza is greater than 90 (>90). Thus, it is perceived that the ground water of Mirza is moderately contaminated while remaining sampling sites fall under low heavy metal contamination category (HPI, < 90). In addition to this, maximum TDS value and pH value were detected from Palasbari is 230 ppm and Mirza that is 8.1 respectively. Consequently, in order to show the heavy metal contents, TDS and pH values, groundwater maps are prepared using ArcGIS software.

18. Chapter 17. Assessment of Various Types of Potable Water Quality and Analyses the Impact of Coal Mining on It Around Raniganj Coalfield, West Bengal in India: Challenges and Strategies

    Dibyendu Saha, Md. Nazir, Kushal Roy, Ayan Saha

    Abstract

    In Raniganj coalfield (RCF), West Bengal, India, potable waters are affected by anthropogenic, and mining activities. The present study aims to evaluate the quality of potable water, to study the effects of anthropogenic and mining activities on the water quality of RCF, and also suggest necessary strategies for purification, and sustainability of wastewater of pit lake (PL). Season-wise, nine different samples of surface and subsurface potable water were collected and analyzed from 2019 to 2022. Outcomes show the pH of a small percentage of potable water is nearly neutral and mostly alkaline. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) is applied to understand and identify the interrelationships between the different indicators and the most contributive sources of water quality. It exhibits that the size of the Eigenvalues are > 1 and cumulative values are 91.3, 99.2, 99.7, and 99.9%. Computed water quality index (WQI) ranges from 12.276 to 103.469 indicating that the colliery-related waters are unfit for use, and some are even very poor. The topographic wetness index (TWI) also shows how much topography affects a certain area's hydrological parameters. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD), Potentially Toxic Elements’ (PTE) pollution, chemical pollution, Erosion, and sedimentation are the prime types of mining activities that impact potable water quality. To reduce water scarcity, especially in the summer season sustainable water management strategies have been suggested by the authors which are required to be implemented in this area.