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2019 | Buch

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Handbook of Energy Storage

Demand, Technologies, Integration

herausgegeben von: Michael Sterner, Prof. Dr. Ingo Stadler

Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik"

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Über dieses Buch

The authors of this Handbook offer a comprehensive overview of the various aspects of energy storage. After explaining the importance and role of energy storage, they discuss the need for energy storage solutions with regard to providing electrical power, heat and fuel in light of the Energy Transition. The book’s main section presents various storage technologies in detail and weighs their respective advantages and disadvantages. Sections on sample practical applications and the integration of storage solutions across all energy sectors round out the book. A wealth of graphics and examples illustrate the broad field of energy storage, and are also available online.

The book is based on the 2nd edition of the very successful German book Energiespeicher. It features a new chapter on legal considerations, new studies on storage needs, addresses Power-to-X for the chemical industry, new Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHC) and potential-energy storage, and highlights the latest cost trends and battery applications.

“Finally – a comprehensive book on the Energy Transition that is written in a style accessible to and inspiring for non-experts.” Franz Alt, journalist and book author

“I can recommend this outstanding book to anyone who is truly interested in the future of our country. It strikingly shows: it won’t be easy, but we can do it.” Prof. Dr. Harald Lesch, physicist and television host

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Meaning and Classification of Storage in the Energy Supply

Frontmatter

1. Energy Storage Through the Ages

Abstract

Overview

Human beings have relied on stored energy since time immemorial. The planet’s first mechanism for storing energy arose two billion years ago. Photosynthesis captures solar energy in chemical bonds; it is a process on which all life depends. With the discovery of fire around one-and-a-half million years ago, early man learned to access this stored energy by burning wood. Only since the Industrial Revolution have humans used fossil fuels, which are the results of biomass produced millions of years ago, then subjected to geological processes. Today, the long-term objective is to utilize sustainable biomass storage, replicate it by technical means, and to develop new storage technologies.

This chapter is about the history of energy storage as it pertains to the carbon cycle. It begins with a natural energy storage system—photosynthesis—and examines its products biomass, peat, and fossil fuels before turning to storage technology in the era of renewable energies. It will also discuss how stored energy is used. This chapter focuses on natural biogenic and fossil energy storage. Other chapters are devoted to artificial storage technologies, including batteries, pumped-storage, and power-to-gas (PtG). Each begins with a short history of its respective technology.

Michael Sterner

2. Definition and Classification of Energy Storage Systems

Abstract

Overview

Energy supply always requires energy storage—either as an intrinsic property or as additional system. It is an intrinsic property of solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels, although less so of water-borne heat, but not of electricity. So to meet variable demands and supplies, heat and electricity networks usually require additional storage systems. When they are added to an energy network, should they be viewed as ‘suppliers’ or as ‘consumers’? Who is responsible for covering the costs of storage systems? To categorize storage systems in the energy sector, they first need to be carefully defined.

This chapter defines storage as well as storage systems, describes their use, and then classifies storage systems according to temporal, spatial, physical, energy-related, and economic criteria.

Michael Sterner, Franz Bauer

Demand of Energy Storage

Frontmatter

3. Storage Demand in Power Supply

Abstract

Overview

Energy storage systems (in the past as well as today) are one significant part in the energy supply. The following three chapters describe how storage demand will develop in the future for the electricity, heat, and traffic sectors, as well as for non-energetic consumption of fossil resources (the chemical industry). Chapter 3, the core of this section on storage demand, makes clear how and why the electricity sector is the nucleus of the energy supply of all sectors and why it creates essential bridges between electricity, heat, and transport sectors, as well as with the chemical industry.

If planned electricity network expansion takes place and flexibilities in generation and consumption are fully exploited, the demand for electricity storage, according to present estimates, will only reach a significant scale at 60–80% shares of renewable energy in the power supply. Network expansion has a great impact on the storage demand, as well as flexible power generation in power plants, combined heat and power (CHP), and flexible consumption via demand-side management (DSM). Four studies in the context of storage demand and the role of energy storage systems for flexibility are comprehensively addressed. The authors and the co-authors were themselves participants in these studies, which will be complemented by ongoing research. A meta-study summary of the main results is shown in Abschn. 3.7, and these results are compared with seven further studies.

Michael Sterner, Christopher Breuer, Tim Drees, Fabian Eckert, Andreas Maaz, Carsten Pape, Niklas Rotering, Martin Thema

4. Heating Supply Storage Requirements

Abstract

Overview

Unlike the electricity sector, heating and cooling storage requirements have attracted little public attention. This is because these storage requirements have generally already been met, and will not change significantly in the future. In the electricity sector by contrast, there will be a significant shift from primary energy storage to electricity and final energy storage.

Both sectors have remarkably high storage requirements. Almost all households have thermal buffers. The same is true of renewable energy heating systems such as pellet heating, geothermal, or solar-thermal systems. Some households with liquid gas or oil heating even have two storage units: a fuel tank and a thermal buffer. Exceptions include heating systems with upstream storage such as district heating or gas storage. In the future, integration of the electricity and heating sectors by combined heat and power (CHP) generation, heat pumps, power-to-heat (PtH), and power-to-gas (PtG) will facilitate the use of renewable energy, and lead to a paradigm shift.

Relying on results from various studies, this chapter examines the development of heating supply in Germany and the resulting thermal storage requirements. The chapter’s later sections provide surplus and storage potential estimates. Cooling requirements are included as ‘process cooling’ under ‘process heat’, and as ‘air-conditioning’ over ‘room heating’. It is primarily integrated into electricity demand.

Michael Sterner, Fabian Eckert, Norman Gerhardt, Hans-Martin Henning, Andreas Palzer

5. Storage Demand in the Transport and Chemical Sector

Abstract

Overview

In the transport sector, energy transition is still in its beginnings: shares of renewable fuels are at 5% and are, with the exception of a small percentage in electrical rail transport, almost entirely restricted to biofuel. The transport sector, i.e., road, air, shipping, and rail traffic, consumes around 30% of all final energy in Germany and its dependency of over 90% on petroleum is still very high. As a result, its shares in greenhouse gas emissions are at 20%.

The necessary structural change in mobility, based on energy transition, is closely linked to the question of operating energy and of energy storage also. Aside from vehicles directly powered by wind or solar energy, mobility without storage is not possible: fuel tanks in cars, gas stations, and airplanes are omnipresent.

The focus of the considerations on storage demand in the transport sector is on the question of how these storages can be used with renewable energies via bio and synthetic fuels, and on the question of how much storage is necessary for these new drive technologies, such as e-mobility. Before this, mobility needs today and in future need to be examined.

In the chemical sector, the situation is very much alike: there is a great dependency on fossil resources, and decarbonization is inevitable to achieve ambitious climate goals. The structural change to convert and store renewable electricity as primary energy via power-to-X (PtX) represents a storage demand. First estimates will conclude this chapter.

Michael Sterner, Fabian Eckert, Hans-Martin Henning, Tobias Trost

Technologies for Energy Storage

Frontmatter

6. Electrical Energy Storage

Abstract

Overview

The technologies used for energy storage are highly diverse. The third part of this book, which is devoted to presenting these technologies, will involve discussion of principles in physics, chemistry, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering. However, the origins of energy storage lie rather in biology, a form of storage that is referred to as ‘chemical-energy storage’. Solar energy is stored in the form of chemical compounds in hydrocarbons that release energy when combusted. The fossil potential of chemical-energy storage systems is dwindling, however, the sustainable potential for biomass is limited (see Chaps. 1 and 2).

To achieve clean energy transition, electricity will become an increasingly important primary energy source. The mainstays will be wind and solar energy; this fact emerges clearly from the scenarios used to determine storage demand (Chaps. 3 and 5). Because these sources are utilized most economically by generating electricity, directly storing energy from these sources in the form of electrical energy is an obvious choice.

This chapter will investigate direct electrical energy storage in capacitors and inductors. This chapter explains the physical and electrical principles underlying both types of energy storage, derives various characteristic values, and describes their function and possible applications.

Ingo Stadler

7. Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems

Abstract

Overview

Direct storage of electrical energy using capacitors and coils is extremely efficient, but it is costly and the storage capacity is very limited. Electrochemical-energy storage offers an alternative without these disadvantages. Yet it is less efficient than simple electrical-energy storage, which is the most efficient form of electricity storage.

Batteries and accumulators are forms of electrochemical-energy storage. Electrochemical systems use electrodes connected by an ion-conducting electrolyte phase. In general, electrical energy can be extracted from electrochemical systems. In the case of accumulators, electrical energy can be both extracted and stored. Chemical reactions are used to transfer the electric charge.

Two categories of electrochemical-energy storage are low-temperature batteries such as lead, nickel, and lithium batteries, and high-temperature batteries such as sodium-sulfur batteries. Two further categories are batteries with external storage such as redox flow batteries, and those with internal storage (the majority of batteries).

Ingo Stadler, Bernhard Riegel, Detlef Ohms, Eduardo Cattaneo, Götz Langer, Matthias Herrmann

8. Chemical Energy Storage

Abstract

Overview

Purely electrical energy storage technologies are very efficient, however they are also very expensive and have the smallest capacities. Electrochemical-energy storage reaches higher capacities at smaller costs, but at the expense of efficiency. This pattern continues in a similar way for chemical-energy storage. In terms of capacities, the limits of batteries (accumulators) are reached when low-loss long-term storage is of need. Chemical-energy storage and stocking fulfills these requirements completely. The storing itself may be subject to significant efficiency losses, but, from today’s point of view and in combination with the existing gas and fuel infrastructure, it is the only national option with regards to the long-term storage of renewable energies.

Chemical-energy storage is the backbone of today’s conventional energy supply. Solid (wood and coal), liquid (mineral oil), and gaseous (natural gas) energy carriers are ‘energy storages’ themselves, and are stored using different technologies. In the course of energy transition, chemical-energy storage will be of significant importance, mainly as long-term storage for the power sector, but also in the form of combustibles and fuels for transport and heat. Not only are conventional storing technologies discussed within this chapter, but a detailed explanation is also given about the storage of renewable energies in the form of gaseous (power-to-gas, PtG) and liquid (power-to-liquid, PtL) energy carriers for electricity, heat, chemicals, and in the form of synthetic fuels.

Michael Sterner, Franz Bauer, Fritz Crotogino, Fabian Eckert, Christian von Olshausen, Daniel Teichmann, Martin Thema

9. Mechanical Energy Storage

Abstract

Overview

Chemical-energy storage systems use caverns, porous storage facilities, tanks, and storage rooms to store chemical energy sources. Caverns, caves, and reservoirs can also be used to store gaseous media such as air, liquid media such as water, and solid media such as rock.

The principles of mechanical energy storage are based on classical Newtonian mechanics, or in other words on fundamental physics from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. As a result, these types of storage are typically divided into two categories; storage of kinetic and potential energy, or storage of ‘pressure energy’.

In this chapter, storage media is categorized by its aggregate state, and described by its function and application: first compressed air energy storage and then conventional electricity storage—pumped-storage plants. The chapter continues with a discussion of innovative methods of storing potential energy using water as a medium. These include artificially constructed pumped storage, pumped storage in the open sea, dam storage on rivers, pumped storage on heaps in repurposed mining areas, underfloor or underground pumped storage, and surface mine storage.

The chapter concludes with a description of classical and modern flywheel energy storage systems. This age-old technology is then compared with a new concept: mechanical stored energy exploiting both pumped storage and change in the potential energy of rocks or large boulders.

Ingo Stadler, Franz Bauer, Marcus Budt, Eduard Heindl, Daniel Wolf

10. Thermal Energy Storage

Abstract

Overview

TES could play a crucial role in the transition to a renewable and efficient energy supply. The heating and cooling sector is Europe’s largest energy consumer. Contributing up to 50% of consumption, the sector is an even larger consumer than the transport and electricity sectors. As cross-sectoral technology, TES could also be a key element in improving the flexibility and efficiency of the industrial process heat and the power generation sector, e.g., with concentrated solar power (CSP) plants.

Three basic systems are used for TES technology. The best-known system is sensible-heat storage, such as buffer storage used in heating facilities. Thermal energy can also be held in latent-heat storage or thermochemical storage systems. This chapter describes the characteristics of these three technologies in detail.

The term ‘thermal-energy storage’ also includes heat and cold storage. Heat storage is the reverse of cold storage. Heat storage absorbs energy during charging, and cold storage releases energy in the form of heat during charging. If the energy stored is at a temperature below ambient temperatures, the system is called cold storage. If the temperature level is above ambient temperatures, the system is called heat storage.

Ingo Stadler, Andreas Hauer, Thomas Bauer

11. Load Management as an Energy Storage System

Abstract

Overview

Chapters 6 to 9 focused on storage systems that store electric energy in a range of forms, and then release the energy again as electric energy. Chapter 10 discussed the use of thermal-energy storage (TES) systems for thermal management.

This chapter examines management methods. These methods use processes that typically convert electric energy into another form of final energy that can also be stored. This form of energy is often thermal energy. But unlike with the systems discussed in previous chapters, here the energy stored is not converted back into electricity. Instead, the energy is used and stored in the same form.

From the point of view of the energy supply system, these management methods perform exactly the same function as energy storage systems. This chapter discusses load-management in general, then potential uses of load-management, and finally, current trends.

Ingo Stadler, Fabian Eckert

12. Comparison of Storage Systems

Abstract

Overview

There are several approaches to classifying energy storage systems (see Chaps. 1 and 2). Storage systems are used in a large number of different technologies at various stages of development, and in a wide range of application areas (see Chaps. 3 to 5). This chapter compares the capabilities of the different storage systems using the following criteria:This comparison of storage systems also provides a convenient overview of the various storage systems and their capabilities.

Michael Sterner, Martin Thema

Energy Storage Integration and Applications

Frontmatter

13. Storage Integration in Individual Energy Sectors

Abstract

Overview

How is energy storage integrated and currently implemented in the electricity supply, heating supply, and mobility sectors? This chapter provides both theoretical and practical answers to that question. The chapter focuses on the integration of renewable energy. Cross-sectoral energy storage systems that link the electricity, heating, and mobility sectors are discussed in Kap. 14.

This chapter focuses on storage integration in the electricity sector. After considering stand-alone networks, the chapter uses practical examples to analyze the various storage applications in the European network. The chapter concludes with a discussion of storage integration in the heating and transportation sectors.

Michael Sterner, Ingo Stadler, Fabian Eckert, Martin Thema

14. Storage Integration for Coupling Different Energy Sectors

Abstract

Overview

Electricity is becoming the primary source of energy, a trend that is particularly apparent through the coupling of the electricity sector with other energy sectors.

In addition to the established links between the electricity and heating sectors using combined heat and power (CHP), which is supplemented by electric heat-pumps and power-to-heat (PtH), other new links are also emerging. These links are manifesting in the form of electro-mobility and electric fuels in the electricity and transport sectors; and in the electricity and gas sector they are appearing in the form of power-to-gas (PtG). The production of basic chemical materials such as methanol or polymers using electrical energy, water, and CO₂ will also play a role in the future. However, the latter will not be dealt with explicitly here. Instead we will consider in detail other aspects of electricity as a primary energy source and its integration and application for energy storage.

Michael Sterner, Ingo Stadler, Fabian Eckert, Norman Gerhardt, Christian von Olshausen, Martin Thema, Tobias Trost

Backmatter

Titel: Handbook of Energy Storage
herausgegeben von: Michael Sterner
Prof. Dr. Ingo Stadler
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Electronic ISBN: 978-3-662-55504-0
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-55503-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-55504-0