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2012 | Buch

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Health and Animal Agriculture in Developing Countries

herausgegeben von: David Zilberman, Joachim Otte, David Roland-Holst, Dirk Pfeiffer

Verlag: Springer New York

Buchreihe : Natural Resource Management and Policy

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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Über dieses Buch

This book provides an overview of the state of animal agriculture and present methodologies and proposals to develop policies that result in sustainable and profitable animal production that will protect human and environmental health, enhance livelihood of smallholders and meet consumer needs. The book combines lessons of the past, factual foundation to understand the present, analytical tools to design and improve policies, case studies that provide both empirical grounding and applications of some of the strategies suggested in this book, and finally, a proposal for the way forward.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Introduction and Background

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

Throughout history, animal husbandry has been a central component of agriculture and livestock has been central to agrofood systems. Animals have provided rural societies with a broad spectrum of products and services, including food, energy, fertilizers, traction and transport, pest control, security, etc. Despite the immense benefits enjoyed by humans from this symbiotic relationship, coexistence with domestic animals also poses serious risks. Most important among these are infectious diseases of animal origin that can affect humans (zoonoses). These have been prominent among the many pandemics that have wiped out millions of people and communities since the earliest human settlements. To cite a relatively recent example, the 1918–1920 Spanish Flu Pandemic, caused by a virus with Avian origins, was responsible for tens of millions of deaths worldwide (Murray et al. 2006). Recent research on the human genome suggests that we have acquired resistance to such diseases over a much longer history of recurrent viral threats.

David Zilberman, Joachim Otte, David Roland-Holst, Dirk Pfeiffer

Chapter 2. The Eradication of Bovine Tuberculosis in the United States in a Comparative Perspective

Abstract

At the dawn of the twentieth century, tuberculosis (TB) was the leading cause of death in the industrialized world. In 1900, TB caused about 1 out of every 9 deaths in the United States. Death represented only a fraction of the disease’s cost because, besides those that succumbed, countless others were permanently crippled and wasted away in pain. It is probable that 10% or more of U.S. TB sufferers had contracted the bovine form of the disease. Infected milk products were the main conduit to humans; however, other cattle products, direct contact with cattle, and swine products all posed a danger. Bovine-type infections were far more common in nonpulmonary cases and in children, especially infants. The mysteries of this classic zoonotic disease needed to be understood before effective action could be taken.

Alan L. Olmstead, Paul W. Rhode

Chapter 3. The Evolution of Animal Agricultural Systems and Supply Chains: Theory and Practice

Abstract

The current efforts to find technical and policy solutions to zoonotic diseases, such as Avian Flu and Swine Flu, are part of a continuous process of evolution of production and supply chains for food and other agricultural products. This chapter provides a conceptual framework to analyze this coevolutionary process and, in particular, the role of technology, economics, and institutional factors as well as biological coevolution. This chapter will build upon the basic principles of production economics, theory of innovation, urban economics, and public finance to show how changes in relative prices, consumer preferences, and technological innovation affect the management and regulation of farming and, in particular, animal husbandry. This theoretical framework is then applied to poultry supply chains in Northern Vietnam.

Jennifer Ifft, David Zilberman

The Economics of Managing Animal Diseases

Frontmatter

Chapter 4. The Economics of Zoonotic Diseases: An Application to Avian Flu

Abstract

This chapter reviews the economics of Avian Influenza and other zoonotic diseases and describes how externalities and market failures lead to suboptimal provision of disease prevention and control. It develops a prototype model of farm behavior that merges epidemiology and economics to provide a framework for analyzing how private incentives lead to a divergence between farmer optimization and social-welfare maximization. Conditions for optimal policy intervention are derived in an application to Avian Influenza and the distribution of economic benefits is derived. Policies for disease prevention and control are considered in the context of the economic model.

David Zilberman, Thomas W. Sproul, Steven Sexton, David Roland-Holst

Chapter 5. Animal Disease and the Industrialization of Agriculture

Abstract

Descartes’ perspective that animals are machines, and perhaps little more, is a matter of great ethical disquiet in contemporary society (Cottingham 1978). Sweeping developments in the life sciences since about 1950 have provided technical insights on how to control life and growth in ways that have made the animal-as-machine analogy more real. The moral principles and economic tradeoffs at issue have become more clearly defined, in large part because production sciences and the systems they support demand clear definition of the production environment. Animal disease confounds control efforts, and also belies the attitude that an animal’s technical performance can be abstracted from its environs.

David A. Hennessy, Tong Wang

Chapter 6. Dynamic Perspectives on the Control of Animal Disease: Merging Epidemiology and Economics

Abstract

The literature on managing animal diseases has its roots in mathematical epidemiology, which focuses on understanding the dynamics of infectious populations (Kermack and McKendrick 1927; Anderson and May 1979). Mathematical epidemiology models can be used to predict the conditions under which disease prevalence will diminish over time and eventually be eradicated from the animal system. Management in this context generally is viewed as a sequence of exogenous perturbations designed to produce the required conditions for prevalence decline and, when possible, eradication (Heesterbeek and Roberts 1995).

Richard D. Horan, Christopher A. Wolf, Eli P. Fenichel

Chapter 7. Border Inspection and Trade Diversion: Risk Reduction vs. Risk Substitution

Abstract

International trade increasingly brings previously separated geographical regions into contact with one another and increases the frequency of those contacts. These trends bring many benefits to the trading partners involved, but increasing international trade also facilitates the spread of pathogens and increases disease risks. The rapid growth of trade, transport, and travel across national borders has increased the frequency of introduction, establishment, and spread of invasive infectious pathogens (Jones et al. 2008). The development of new trade pathways and the growth in the number and volume of commodities traded increase the likelihood that novel infectious pathogens are introduced to importing or stop-over countries. The growth in trade volumes has increased the risk that introduced pathogens establish and spread, because it has increased the frequency with which infectious pathogens are introduced (Cassey et al. 2004; Dalmazzone 2000; Semmens et al. 2004). Other factors such as the bioclimatic similarities between trading partners, the vulnerability of ecosystems in the importing countries, and risk management policies adopted by both importing and exporting countries also influence the risks of invasive infectious pathogens (Wiens and Graham 2005).

Qiong Wang, Eli P. Fenichel, Charles A. Perrings

Chapter 8. The Cost of Saving a Statistical Life: A Case for Influenza Prevention and Control

Abstract

Billions of dollars have been spent on reducing the likelihood and severity of influenza pandemics originating in domesticated animals. These investments have global public-good properties and have to be shared. This chapter provides guidance for evaluating the benefits of flu-prevention expenditures and sharing their costs. Investments are valued by their implied statistical value of a life saved and are compared to a global average value that we construct. The results suggest that, if a $10 billion annual investment reduces the expected fatalities of a pandemic by 10%, then it is a reasonable or even very good investment. Our figures suggest that the United States should cover 20% and China 11% of the global public-good investment in flu risk reduction.

Thomas W. Sproul, David Zilberman, David Roland-Holst, Joachim Otte

Chapter 9. The Effect of Social Norms and Economic Considerations on Purchases of Chicken

Abstract

An important characteristic of modern life is the increasing diversity of products and services that save time. While, in the past, time-saving services were primarily limited to those who could afford to employ maids or servants, the modern economy has created a whole range of time-saving products and services that are accessible to people of any economic status.

Amir Heiman, Bruce McWilliams, David Zilberman

The Spread and Control of Avian Influenza

Frontmatter

Chapter 10. Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Strain Type H5N1

Abstract

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a severe disease of poultry. It is highly transmissible with a flock mortality rate approaching 100% in vulnerable species (Capua et al. 2007a). Due to the potentially disastrous impact the disease can have on affected poultry sectors, HPAI has received huge attention and is classified as a notifiable disease by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE).

Guillaume Fournié, Will de Glanville, Dirk Pfeiffer

Chapter 11. Mathematical Models of Infectious Diseases in Livestock: Concepts and Application to the Spread of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Strain Type H5N1

Abstract

Animal health governance faces new challenges as the ecology of infectious livestock diseases is changing (Tomley and Shirley 2009). Environmental and climate changes, intensification of livestock production, modification in land-use and agricultural practices, globalization of human travel, the development of the trade of livestock and livestock products have created conditions for an increase in the emergence and re-emergence of infectious agents in the last decades (Weiss and McMichael 2004; Randolph and Rogers 2010; Jones et al. 2008; Gibbs 2005). The frequency of emergence of new highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) has increased over the past 20 years, as well as the economic impact of associated outbreaks (Alexander and Brown 2009). Bluetongue virus serotypes have continuously increased their spatial distribution, specifically in a northern direction. Treatment-resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), have appeared. Numerous infectious diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) are endemic in many parts of the world, and may have a high impact on animal health and farmer livelihood. Moreover, they constrain the ability of affected countries to trade livestock and livestock-derived products. Production systems in developed countries are also vulnerable. For example, outbreaks of FMD in United Kingdom in 2001, classical swine fever in Holland in 1997/1998, and highly pathogenic avian influenza H7N7 in Holland in 2003 resulted in the loss of millions of animals, mainly as a result of culling of affected and exposed animals. Finally, infectious livestock diseases are a threat for public health: about 75% of human infectious agents that emerged in the last 25 years had an animal origin (King et al. 2006).

Guillaume Fournié, Patrick Walker, Thibaud Porphyre, Raphaëlle Métras, Dirk Pfeiffer

Chapter 12. Large-Scale Vaccination for the Control of Avian Influenza: Epidemiological and Financial Implications

Abstract

Since its emergence in 1996 in China, highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus has infected 61 countries, caused more than 300 human fatalities, and resulted in disease mortality and culling of several hundred million domestic birds. In most of the affected countries, the H5N1 virus could be eliminated through swift and determined interventions of national animal health systems. In some countries, however, the virus appears to have become endemic in specific eco and production systems, leading to resurgence of infection in poultry and humans the moment control efforts are relaxed. The countries in which HPAI H5N1 virus can currently be considered endemic comprise Bangladesh, China, Egypt, Indonesia, and Vietnam as well as the Indian State of West Bengal (FAO in press).

Jan Hinrichs, Joachim Otte

Chapter 13. Poultry Movement and Sustained HPAI Risk in Cambodia

Abstract

The threat posed by highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 viruses to humans remains significant, given the continued occurrence of sporadic human cases (518 human cases in 15 countries) with a high case fatality rate (approximately 60%; Table 13.1), the endemicity in poultry populations in several countries, and the potential for reassortment with the newly emerging 2009 H1N1 pandemic strain. Additionally, the connectedness of animal networks can lead to large and widespread epidemics of disease and an understanding of human and animal movement and their contact structures could be used to design more targeted surveillance activities and inform models of disease spread, which could result in more cost-effective disease prevention and control (Dent et al. 2008; Green et al. 2008; Kiss et al. 2008; Truscott et al. 2007). However, despite their likely role in the circulation and spread of HPAI in South East Asia, little is understood about the poultry market chains, legal or illegal trade of poultry or the types, and frequencies of contact that exist between rural people raising poultry, local markets, and large-national poultry markets in the major cities.

Maria D. Van Kerkhove

Institutional Approaches to Controlling Animal Diseases

Frontmatter

Chapter 14. AI Insurance/Indemnification: The Canadian Experience and Its Application to Developing Regions

Abstract

The elements typically considered in foreign animal disease program management involve the development of policies and protocols for:

Robert Burden

Chapter 15. Understanding Knowledge, Attitude, Perceptions, and Practices for HPAI Risks and Management Options Among Kenyan Poultry Producers

Abstract

Since its emergence, HPAI H5N1 strain has attracted considerable public and media attention because the virus has been shown to be capable of causing fatal disease in humans. Although there is fear that the virus may mutate into a strain capable of sustained human-to-human transmission, the greatest impact to date has been on the highly diverse poultry industries in affected countries. In response to this, policies against HPAI have so far focused on implementing prevention, control, and eradication measures in poultry populations, with more than 175 million birds culled in Southeast Asia alone.

Marites Tiongco, Clare Narrod, Rosemarie Scott, Mimako Kobayashi, John Omiti

Chapter 16. Controlling Animal Disease in Africa

Abstract

Africa presents a number of unique challenges in the field of animal health, which distinguishes the continent from many other regions of the world. Africa is home to a diverse range of agro-ecological and production systems, with significant interactions between them that are mediated by several elements: the movements of wildlife and pastoralist cattle; the endemic presence of disease vectors such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes; the variability in climate that can accentuate conditions favorable for disease spread; and the contrasting market relationships and interactions between smallholder and commercial systems alike. Moreover, there is significant heterogeneity in the capacity, resources, and incentives of actors within the different livestock value chains, including producers, traders, market agents, processors, retailers, and support services (including government), to mitigate disease which, given these ecological and market interactions, further complicates effective disease control efforts by the public and private sectors (Rich and Perry 2011a). Declining public budgets allocated to animal health and often erratic donor priorities toward specific diseases muddle the situation even more (Winter-Nelson and Rich 2008).

Karl M. Rich, Brian D. Perry

Chapter 17. Promoting Rural Livelihoods and Public Health Through Poultry Contracting: Evidence from Thailand

Abstract

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) first emerged in Southeast Asia in 2003–2004. Initially, containment policies ranged from focusing on mass culling (Thailand) and vaccination (Vietnam) to the elimination of all wet markets (Hong Kong). Although these measures were applied with varied success, it has become clear that a new generation of policies is necessary to address the infrequent, but continued, outbreaks of an apparently endemic disease. The nature of these circumstances require that the new generation of policies focus on long term adjustment and take into account acceptable risk levels, farmer livelihoods, and financial sustainability. It is within this context that we look at geographical potential for medium scale contract farming in the informal poultry sector in Thailand.

Samuel Heft-Neal, David Roland-Holst, Songsak Sriboonchitta, Anaspree Chaiwan, Joachim Otte

Chapter 18. Micro Contracting and the Smallholder Poultry Supply Chain in Lao PDR

Abstract

The population of Lao PDR remains a predominately rural population and engaged in subsistence agriculture. For this reason, livestock generally and poultry in particular can be instrumental to sustaining and improving livelihoods. However, these livelihood potentials are far from being realized, because a myriad of market access challenges and information/incentive failures deter participation and undermine value creation across low income supply chains. These include, but are not limited to, transport costs, search costs, the nature of sales (often in times of emergency), information asymmetries, and agency problems that undermine investment incentives and reduce the likelihood of smallholders effective market participation.

Drew Behnke, David Roland-Holst, Joachim Otte

Chapter 19. Poultry Sector Transition in Cambodia

Abstract

Across Southeast Asia, livestock sectors are in the midst of significant transitions. While these shifts were underway prior to the HPAI outbreaks which began in 2003, response and adjustment to these outbreaks have accelerated these trends in many countries. In light of these transitions underway, household surveys were undertaken in Cambodia to produce detailed assessments of poultry supply chain conditions in the Kampot and Siem Reap market casement areas. This was done with detailed and separate surveys at four levels, producers, traders, vendors, and consumers. The goal of this approach is to elucidate the properties of livestock networks as these are determined by production conditions, market access, contractual relationships, and overall market conditions.

Samuel Heft-Neal, David Roland-Holst, Joachim Otte

Chapter 20. Avian Influenza in China: Consumer Perception of AI and their Willingness to Pay for Traceability Labeling

Abstract

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) or “bird flu” is a contagious animal disease caused by avian influenza viruses (CDC 2007). The HPAI virus spreads rapidly. In particular, the H5N1 subtype of the influenza virus causes a high mortality rate among infected birds (up to 90–100% within 48 h) (CDC 2007; OIE 2008).

Yanhong Jin, Jianhong Mu

Conclusion

Frontmatter

Chapter 21. Conclusion

Abstract

The influenza virus and zoonotic diseases are perennial companions of human society, posing substantial direct threats to human lives and livelihoods as well as to animal populations. Zoonotic diseases coevolve with human society, animal husbandry, and technology, and this book presents multidisciplinary frameworks to assess zoonotic-disease impacts and to control them. This research is applied to one of today’s most important pandemic threats, Avian Flu (HPAI type H5N1), but it has lessons of relevance to most zoonotic-disease risks—past, present, and future.

David Zilberman, Joachim Otte, David Roland-Holst, Dirk Pfeiffer

Backmatter

Titel: Health and Animal Agriculture in Developing Countries
herausgegeben von: David Zilberman
Joachim Otte
David Roland-Holst
Dirk Pfeiffer
Verlag: Springer New York
Electronic ISBN: 978-1-4419-7077-0
Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-7076-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7077-0