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Erschienen in:

2016 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

3. Here Comes the Sun: The Future of Renewable-Energy Systems

verfasst von : Charles Eley

Erschienen in: Design Professional’s Guide to Zero Net Energy Buildings

Verlag: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics

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Abstract

It is not possible to completely eliminate energy demand in our buildings. Energy utilization indices (EUIs) will never go to zero through smart building design alone. We need to heat our buildings when it is cold and cool them when it is hot. We need to power our computers and other equipment. Lighting can be minimized through daylighting, but not eliminated altogether. We do need energy—just not as much as we are currently using. This chapter shows how we can produce what we need without using fossil fuels and without adding carbon dioxide (CO₂) to the atmosphere.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Smart Building Design: Contextual Design, Energy Efficiency, and Curtailment

Nächstes Kapitel Energy Modeling: Evaluating ZNE before the Utility Bills Arrive

The Earth receives about 8.2 million quads of energy a year, or 936 quads per hour. The energy of the world economy is on the order of 400 quads per year. This means that in about 26 minutes (calculated as (400/936)×60), we receive all the energy we need.

The sun produces about 12.2 trillion watt-hours per year per square mile. This works out to be 0.042 quads of energy per year per square mile (12.2×10¹² Wh × (3.412 Btu/Wh)/10¹⁵ Btu/quad). Sunlight arriving over an area of 2,400 square miles is about equal to current United States energy consumption. This is an area about 50 miles square, or about 2 percent of the state of Colorado. For the source of the data on 12.2 trillion Wh per year, see: http://www.ecoworld.com/energy-fuels/how-much-solar-energy-hits-earth.html.

Denholm and Margolis, “Land-Use Requirements and the Per-Capita Solar Footprint for PV Generation in the United States,” Energy Policy 36 no. 9 (August 2008): 3531–43.

Electric vehicles (EVs) are currently designed to take power from the grid, but to date, none have the capability to provide power to the grid. Providing power in both directions would require a redesign of the current generation of EV chargers.

The Wind Energy Foundation publishes data from time to time on the industry. See: http://www.windenergyfoundation.org/interesting-wind-energy-facts.

The widely used GE 1.5-MW model, for example, consists of 116-foot blades atop a 212-foot tower for a total height of 328 feet.

The French physicist Edmund Becquerel discovered in 1839 that a voltage appeared when he illuminated a metal electrode immersed in a weak electrolyte solution.

The Solar Energy Industries Association publishes data on the state of the industry. See: http://www.seia.org/research-resources/solar-industry-data.

Ibid.

For typical solar cell efficiencies, see: Godfrey Boyle, Renewable Energy, Power for a Sustainable Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). For theoretical efficiency limits, see: William Shockley and Hans J. Queisser, “Detailed Balance Limit of Efficiency of pn Junction Solar Cells,” Journal of Applied Physics 32 (1961).

The first step is to separate the silicon atoms from the oxygen atoms and remove other impurities. There are several methods for doing this, but melting the quartz at about 3,600 °F (2,000 °C) and adding carbon is the common method. The carbon reacts with the oxygen in the molten silica to produce carbon dioxide (a by-product of the process), leaving metallurgical-grade silicon. This in turn is ground into a fine powder and further treated to produce nearly perfectly pure silicon.

The sawing process involves a wire coated with an abrasive compound of glycol and silicon carbide. The wire is hundreds of miles long. About half the material is lost as the ingots are sliced, but the silicon is recycled and used to make more monocrystalline ingots.

The Florida Solar Energy Center publishes a test procedure for rating solar collectors; see: http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/publications/pdf/standards/FSECstd_202-10.pdf. For another document that looks at performance metrics, see: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy14osti/60628.pdf.

PTC refers to PVUSA Test Conditions, which were developed to test and compare PV systems as part of the PVUSA (Photovoltaics for Utility-Scale Applications) project. The PTC test conditions are 1,000 W per square meter solar irradiance, 20 °C air temperature, and wind speed of 1 meter per second at 10 meters above ground level.

A typical specification will include the following: System Rating, Wattage (PTC), Max Power Voltage (V_mpp), Max Power Current (I_mpp), Open-Circuit Voltage (V_oc), Short-Circuit Current (I_sc), Max System Voltage, Series Fuse Rating, and Module Efficiency.

The Enphase M215 is an example.

For comparisons between a two-axis tracking system and fixed panels that are sloped to the south, east, and west, see, for instance: http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=18871. Flat panels are also compared. For Los Angeles, annual production was 2,078 kWh for two-axis tracking, 1,566 kWh for south, 1,403 kWh for west, 1,332 kWh for east, and 1,402 kWh for flat.

The solar path finder has been used for decades to evaluate shading conditions at building sites. See: http://www.solarpathfinder.com/.

One of the more popular devices is the SunEye 210 Shade Tool by Solmetric, though it has been discontinued; see http://www.solmetric.com/buy210.html. For how to use a camera and fish-eye lens to do a solar study, see: http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/about/edusafety/training/pec/toolbox/tll/appnotes/taking_a_fisheye_photograph.pdf.

“Price Quotes,” http://pv.energytrend.com/. Archived from the original on June 26, 2014. See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source.

See: https://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/electricity_generation.cfm; for a summary description of LCOE, see: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source.

The US EPA has a good description of solar-power purchase agreements; see: http://www.epa.gov/greenpower/buygp/solarpower.htm.

For a discussion of options regarding what to do at the end of the SPPA, see: http://breakingenergy.com/2012/09/26/a-guide-to-end-of-term-options-in-a-solar-ppa/.

For a good description of the differences between a solar-power purchase agreement (sPPA) and a solar lease, see: http://www.energysage.com/solar-lease/lease-ppa-whats-the-difference.

This is based on a solar panel with an area of 1.64 m² (17.5 ft²) that has an STC rating of 270 W.

Titel: Here Comes the Sun: The Future of Renewable-Energy Systems
verfasst von: Charles Eley
Verlag: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics
Buch: Design Professional’s Guide to Zero Net Energy Buildings
Print ISBN: 978-1-61091-823-7

Electronic ISBN: 978-1-61091-765-0

Copyright-Jahr: 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-765-0_3

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