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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

High-Tech Migration Control in the EU and Beyond: The Legal Challenges of “Enhanced Interoperability”

verfasst von : Philip Hanke, Daniela Vitiello

Erschienen in: Use and Misuse of New Technologies

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

New technologies are transforming human mobility while raising new legal issues. This is also affecting the control of migratory flows, with an increasing recourse to sensor technology and unmanned aerial vehicles. In the European Union, this trend is coupled with an acceleration of the standardisation process of computer systems’ interconnection, aimed at fine tuning access to information and personal data by surveillance authorities. The Chapter depicts the normative, institutional and operational design of the Union as an area in which the lion’s share of internal security is ensured through new technologies and information systems. It then turns to analyse the legal challenges arising from the crafting of “smart borders”, i.e. borders based upon automation of surveillance and system interoperability. Two main research questions are tackled: first, how these new features affect the EU integrated border management; and, second, whether the existing legal framework of EU law can accommodate this change. Apparently, the search for enhanced interoperability may stretch even further the tensions underpinning the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice, so that the more interoperable EU surveillance systems become, the less coherent the EU legal order risks being.

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Fußnoten
1
For an interactive map showing which airports have implemented Automated Border Control, see IATA, Automated Border Control Implementation, available at: http://​www.​iata.​org/​whatwedo/​passenger/​Pages/​automated-border-control.​aspx. For an overview of the algorithms used, see Sanchez del Rio et al. (2016).
 
2
See e.g. the plans of the United Arab Emirates: Malek (2018).
 
3
See e.g. the definition in Collins English Dictionary, available at: https://​www.​collinsdictionar​y.​com/​dictionary/​english/​digitize.
 
5
Prause (2018). Likewise, the Third Industrial Revolution refers to the shift from analogue and mechanical devices to digital technology, whereas the Fourth Industrial Revolution is driven by further embedding of technology in society, as well as breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things (IoT), robotics, and other fields. See Schwab (2017).
 
6
For example, one of the main problems in the Brexit negotiations is the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. A so-called “hard border” is not a politically desired outcome (particularly in light of the Good Friday Agreement), which is why an electronic border solution is being discussed. See Kennedy (2017).
 
7
Connor (2017) and European Political Strategy Centre, 10 Trends Shaping Migration, European Commission, 2017, available at: https://​ec.​europa.​eu/​epsc/​publications/​other-publications/​10-trends-shaping-migration_​en.
 
8
United Nations, Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, Draft Rev 1 of 26 March 2018, p. 5.
 
9
Ibid., para. 9.
 
10
Keung (2017).
 
11
Hanke (2017).
 
13
Benton and Glennie (2016).
 
14
Strerath and Gremer (2017).
 
15
Richter (2018).
 
16
Biselli (2017a).
 
17
Holzschuh (2017).
 
18
Biselli (2017b).
 
19
Documented in: Reuter (2017).
 
20
See e.g. the new Austrian government’s plan to read geodata from phones: Hagen (2018).
 
21
World Bank (2017).
 
22
Castillo (2017).
 
23
United Nations, Global Compact cit., p. 22.
 
24
Biryukov (2017).
 
25
Peck (2018).
 
26
Nixon (2017).
 
27
Sternstein (2015).
 
28
United States Government Accountability Office, Face Recognition Technology—FBI Should Better Ensure Privacy and Accuracy. Report to the Ranking Member, Subcommittee on Privacy, Technology and the Law, Committee on the Judiciary, US Senate, 2016. Washington, D.C., available at: https://​www.​gao.​gov/​assets/​680/​677098.​pdf.
 
29
Ibid.
 
30
Brandom (2017).
 
31
CNBC, National Guard Troops from Arizona, Texas Deploy to Border, 6 April 2018, available at: https://​www.​cnbc.​com/​2018/​04/​06/​national-guard-troops-from-arizona-texas-deploy-to-border.​html.
 
32
See below, Sect. 7.
 
33
Foot (1967).
 
34
Workshop “New Technologies as Shields and Swords: Challenges for International, European and Domestic Law”, 19–20 June 2017, University of Parma, Italy.
 
35
At MIT’s Moral Machine website, the user can judge which outcome is more acceptable in a larger number of scenarios involving self-driving cars. See moralmachine.mit.edu.
 
36
Ethik-Kommission (2017).
 
37
Nevejans (2016).
 
38
Dijstelbloem et al. (2011).
 
39
Beuving (2010), p. 220.
 
40
Communication to the European Parliament and the Council of 8 July 2014, Better situational awareness by enhanced cooperation across maritime surveillance authorities: next steps within the Common Information Sharing Environment for the EU maritime domain, COM(2014) 451 final.
 
41
On the a contrario definition of “external borders” in EU law see Article 2(2) of Regulation (EU) 2016/399 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2016 on a Union Code on the rules governing the movement of persons across borders (Schengen Borders Code), OJ L 77/1 (“SBC”). On the extension of joint border control beyond the external line of demarcation of EU Member States’ territory, see Guild (2001), p. 13 ff. On the “legal fiction” of EU’s external borders, as dissociated from the territorial scope of EU law as specified in Articles 52 and 355 TFEU, refer to Thym (2016), p. 40.
 
42
Bigo (1994).
 
43
Bellanova and Gonzalez Fuster (2013).
 
44
Pollak and Slominski (2009), Carrera et al. (2013) and Zeitlin (2015).
 
45
Communication to the European Parliament and the Council of 22 November 2010, The EU Internal Security Strategy in Action: Five steps towards a more secure Europe, COM(2010) 673 final.
 
46
European Union Maritime Security Strategy as adopted by the Council (General Affairs) on 24 June 2014, 11205/14.
 
47
Progress report “State of play” on the Strengthening Ties between CSDP and FSJ road map implementation, EEAS document 01648/12, LIMITE 14130/12, 24 September 2012; Interim Strategic Review of EUBAM Libya, EEAS(2015) 435, LIMITE 7886/15, 13 April 2015; Parkin (2012).
 
48
Joint Communication to the European Parliament and the Council of 6 April 2016, Joint Framework on countering hybrid threats. A European Union response, JOIN(2016)18 final; A Europe that protects: EU works to build resilience and better counter hybrid threats, European Commission Press Release of 13 June 2018.
 
49
See UNHCR, Mediterranean death toll soars, 2016 is deadliest year yet, 25 October 2016.
 
50
Communication to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council and the European Investment Bank of 7 June 2016, On establishing a new Partnership Framework with third countries under the European Agenda on Migration, COM(2016) 385 final, p. 5.
 
51
Preamble of SBC, Recital 26. Contra, see European Council Conclusions of 18 October 2018, Press Release 577/18.
 
52
United Kingdom, House of Lords, EU Action Plan against migrant smuggling, London: The Stationery Office Limited, 3 November 2015.
 
53
Communication to the European Parliament and the Council of 16 March 2016, Next Operational Steps in EU-Turkey Cooperation in the Field of Migration, COM(2016) 166 final, p. 2.
 
54
Heyman and Campbell (2012).
 
55
On the famous definition of the crisis as an “interregnum”, elaborated by Antonio Gramsci, and on its relevance today, see Bauman (2012).
 
56
European Council Conclusions of 15 December 2016, EUCO 34/16; Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions of 28 April 2015, The European Agenda on Security, COM(2015) 185 final (“Agenda on Security”). On the legal development of the “Security Union”, see Carrera and Mitsilegas (2017).
 
57
The Defence-Security Nexus. Towards an EU Collective Security, European Political Strategy Centre Strategic Notes No. 28, 18 October 2017. On the EU Global Strategy, refer to Council Conclusions of 19 November 2018 on Security and Defence in the context of the EU Global Strategy, Doc. 13978/18.
 
58
Communication to the European Parliament, the European Council and the Council of 20 April 2016, Delivering on the European Agenda on Security to fight against terrorism and pave the way towards an effective and genuine Security Union, COM(2016) 230 final, p. 5.
 
59
Communication to the European Parliament, the European Council and the Council of 16 May 2017, Seventh progress report towards an effective and genuine Security Union, COM(2017) 261 final.
 
60
Interoperability package. Presentation by Julian King, Commissioner for the Security Union, at the LIBE Committee of the European Parliament, 15 January 2018, LIBE/8/11944.
 
61
See Article 4 of Regulation (EU) 2016/1624 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 September 2016 on the European Border and Coast Guard and amending Regulation (EU) 2016/399 of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Regulation (EC) 863/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council, Council Regulation (EC) 2007/2004 and Council Decision 2005/267/EC, OJ L 251/1 (“Frontex Regulation”).
 
62
Regulation (EU) 2017/2226 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2017 establishing an Entry/Exit System (EES) to register entry and exit data and refusal of entry data of third-country nationals crossing the external borders of the Member States and determining the conditions for access to the EES for law enforcement purposes, and amending the Convention implementing the Schengen Agreement and Regulations (EC) 767/2008 and (EU) 1077/2011, OJ L 327/20 (“EES Regulation”).
 
63
Communication to the European Parliament and the Council of 26 November 2014, A new era for aviation—Opening the aviation market to the civil use of remotely piloted aircraft systems in a safe and sustainable manner, COM(2014) 451 final. On the phases of Eurosur, see Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions of 13 February 2008, Examining the creation of a European border surveillance system (EUROSUR), COM(2008) 68 final.
 
64
Article 1 of Frontex Regulation.
 
65
‘Smart borders’: enhancing mobility and security, IP/13/162 of 28 February 2013. For a critical appraisal of the 2013 package see Jeandesboz et al. (2013); Article 29 Working Party (“WP”), Opinion 05/2013 of 6 June 2013 on Smart Borders, WP206.
 
66
Smart Borders Package: Questions & Answers, MEMO/16/1249 of 6 April 2016.
 
67
Council Decision of 8 June 2004 establishing the Visa Information System (VIS), OJ L 213/5.
 
68
Regulation (EU) 2018/1241 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 September 2018, amending Regulation (EU) 2016/794 for the purpose of establishing a European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS), OJ L 236/72. The ETIAS mirrors the US “ESTA” system, determining the eligibility of visa-exempt third country nationals to travel to the Schengen area in light of security and migration risks by gathering and checking their biographical information before departure. For a critical appraisal, refer to Alegre et al. (2017).
 
69
Regulation (EU) 2017/2225 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2017, amending Regulation (EU) 2016/399 as regards the use of the Entry/Exit System, OJ L 327/1.
 
70
Regulation (EU) 2017/458 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2017, amending Regulation (EU) 2016/399 as regards the reinforcement of checks against relevant databases at external borders, OJ L 74/1. See also: Recommendation of 15 June 2015, Amending the Recommendation establishing a Common Practical Handbook for Border Guards (Schengen Handbook) to be used by Member States’ competent authorities when carrying out the border control of persons (C (2006) 5186 final), C(2015) 3894 final.
 
71
Regulation (EU) 2018/1861 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 November 2018, On the establishment, operation and use of the Schengen Information System (SIS) in the field of border checks, and amending the Convention implementing the Schengen Agreement, and amending and repealing Regulation (EC) 1987/2006, OJ L 312/14. See also: Regulation (EU) 2018/1862 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 November 2018, On the establishment, operation and use of the Schengen Information System (SIS) in the field of police cooperation and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, amending and repealing Council Decision 2007/533/JHA, and repealing Regulation (EC) 1986/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Commission Decision 2010/261/EU, OJ L 312/56.
 
72
Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 June 2017, Establishing a centralised system for the identification of Member States holding conviction information on third country nationals and stateless persons (TCN) to supplement and support the European Criminal Records Information System (ECRIS-TCN system) and amending Regulation (EU) 1077/2011, COM(2017) 344 final, 2017/0144 (COD). See also: Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 January 2016, amending Council Framework Decision 2009/315/JHA, as regards the exchange of information on third country nationals and as regards the European Criminal Records Information System (ECRIS), and replacing Council Decision 2009/316/JHA, COM(2016) 7 final, 2016/0002 (COD). On the ECRIS, refer to Montaldo, in this volume.
 
73
Regulation (EU) 2018/1726 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 November 2018 on the European Union Agency for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT Systems in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice (eu-LISA), and amending Regulation (EC) 1987/2006 and Council Decision 2007/533/JHA and repealing Regulation (EU) 1077/2011, OJ L 295/99.
 
74
Communication to the European Parliament and the Council of 14 March 2018, Adapting the common visa policy to new challenges, COM(2018) 251 final. See also: Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 May 2018, amending Regulation (EC) 767/2008, Regulation (EC) 810/2009, Regulation (EU) 2017/2226, Regulation (EU) 2016/399, Regulation XX/2018 [Interoperability Regulation], and Decision 2004/512/EC and repealing Council Decision 2008/633/JHA, COM(2018) 302 final, 2018/0152 (COD).
 
75
Regulation (EU) 1052/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2013 establishing the European border surveillance system (Eurosur), OJ L 295/11 (“Eurosur Regulation”).
 
76
Refer to Marin and Krajčíková (2016) and Rijpma (2017).
 
77
The support of the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), the European Fisheries Control Agency (EFCA) and the EU Satellite Centre (SatCen) to national authorities carrying out Coast Guard functions is foreseen by the respective Founding Regulations. According to the Commission, the procurement process to provide Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) services for maritime surveillance has been already finalised and RPAS have been used for demonstrations. See European Parliament, Parliamentary Questions E-000107/2017 of 27 March 2017, Answer given by Ms Bulc on behalf of the Commission. See also Frontex and EMSA, Pilot Project: “Creation of a European Coastguard Function”. Final Report, 22 December 2017, p. 12.
 
78
See Joint Staff Working Document of the European Commission and the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy of 14 June 2017, Second Report on the implementation of the EU Maritime Security Strategy Action Plan, SWD(2017) 238 final, p. 14.
 
79
Among AFSJ Agencies, Frontex’ regulatory role has been crucial to the establishment of the IMB, by providing an epistemic foundation to the EU border and migration agenda, via risk analysis based on data gathered during joint operations and pilot projects. On this task, see amplius Paul (2016).
 
80
Frontex conducted the pilot for the Automated Border Control (ABC) system and collaborated with eu-LISA to the pilot for the EES. Refer to FRONTEX Guidelines for Processing of Third-Country Nationals through Automated Border Control, Frontex 2016; From strategic guidelines to actions: the contribution of the JHA Agencies to the practical development of the area of freedom, security and justice in the EU, EASO 2014.
 
81
EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator, JHA agencies’ role in counter-terrorism, LIMITE 6146/18 ADD 1, 27 February 2018, para. 3. O the extension of Frontex’ mandate to counter-terrorism, see Frontex Regulation, Article 8(1)(m).
 
82
Ibid., Article 8(1)(b).
 
83
Ibid., Article 47. See also: Joint Communication to the European Parliament, The European Council and the Council of 25 January 2017, Migration on the Central Mediterranean route Managing flows, saving lives, JOIN(2017) 4 final.
 
84
Article 12 of Eurosur Regulation.
 
85
Frontex Regulation, Article 8(1)(s). “Operational interoperability” has been achieved via association of third countries’ information and intelligence services. In the 2018 proposal for the recast of Frontex Regulation, the agency’s hub function is further emphasised, since Eurosur is “internalised” into Frontex’ legislative framework. See the Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 September 2018, On the European Border and Coast Guard and repealing Council Joint Action No 98/700/JHA, Regulation (EU) 1052/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Regulation (EU) 2016/1624 of the European Parliament and of the Council, COM(2018) 631 final, 2018/0330 (COD).
 
86
EDPS, Opinion of 18 March 2016, Securing Europe’s rights and borders. See also: Opinion of 17 May 2010, on the Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and the Council Amending Council Regulation (EC) 2007/2004 Establishing a European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union (Frontex), para. 34 ff.
 
87
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA), Fundamental rights and the interoperability of EU information systems: borders and security, July 2017, p. 26 ff.
 
88
Communication to the European Parliament and the Council of 6 April 2016, Stronger and Smarter Information Systems for Borders and Security, COM(2016) 205 final; Joint Communication to the European Parliament and the Council of 10 November 2017, Improving Military Mobility in the European Union, JOIN (2017) 41 final, p. 2. On the concept of interoperability, see Berthelet (2017).
 
89
European Agenda on Security: Commission sets out new approach on interoperability of information systems, IP/17/1303 of 16 May 2017.
 
90
Commission Decision of 1 July 2016, Setting up the High-Level Expert Group on Information Systems and Interoperability, C(2016) 3780.
 
91
HLEG, Final Report of 17 May 2017 on Information Systems and Interoperability (“HLEG Final Report”).
 
92
Council Conclusions of 8–9 June 2017, On the way forward to improve information exchange and ensure interoperability of EU information systems, Doc. 10151/17.
 
93
Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2017, On establishing a framework for interoperability between EU information systems (borders and visa) and amending Council Decision 2004/512/EC, Regulation (EC) 767/2008, Council Decision 2008/633/JHA, Regulation (EU) 2016/399 and Regulation (EU) 2017/2226, COM(2017) 793 final; Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2017, On establishing a framework for interoperability between EU information systems (police and judicial cooperation, asylum and migration), COM(2017) 794 final.
 
94
Communication to the Council and the European Parliament of 24 November 2005, On improved effectiveness, enhanced interoperability and synergies among European databases in the area of Justice and Home Affairs, COM(2005) 597 final. See amplius Gutheil et al. (2018), p. 42 ff.
 
95
Gammeltoft-Hansen and Hathaway (2015).
 
96
Refer to Brouwer (2008), p. 132 ff.; Rijpma and Cremona (2007).
 
97
Strategy deliberations of the Council of the European Union of 21 November 2006, Integrated Border Management, Doc. 13926/3/06 REV 3.
 
98
Article 77(2)(d) TFEU.
 
99
The Stockholm Programme—An Open and Secure Europe Serving and Protecting Citizens (2010/C 115/01), OJ C 115/1, para. 4.2.3.
 
100
On their specific technical function within the economics of the “twin” legislative proposals, see Eisele (2018).
 
101
Agenda on Security, p. 4.
 
102
Joint Declaration of the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission of 14 December 2017, On the EU’s legislative priorities for 2018–2019. See also: Communication to the European Parliament, the European Council and the Council of 24 January 2018, Thirteenth progress report towards an effective and genuine Security Union, COM(2018) 46 final, p. 1.
 
103
On the legal challenges linked to this cross-sectoral approach see EDPS, Reflection paper of 17 November 2017 on the interoperability of information systems in the area of Freedom, Security and Justice, p. 9.
 
104
The Defence-Security Nexus, p. 3, where the Commission acknowledges that the construction of this nexus might encounter “constitutional limitations”, which “could, at times, impede the merging of internal and external security dimensions, particularly if this is done using a single instrument”. Therefore, interoperability may play a role in ensuring consistency without amending the Treaties.
 
105
Impact Assessment of a Commission proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on establishing a framework for interoperability between EU information systems (borders and visa) and amending Council Decision 2004/512/EC, Regulation (EC) 767/2008, Council Decision 2008/633/JHA, Regulation (EU) 2016/399 and Regulation (EU) 2017/2226 (COM(2017)793) and of a Commission proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on establishing a framework for interoperability between EU information systems (police and judicial cooperation, asylum and migration) (COM(2017) 794), SWD(2017) 473, SWD(2017) 474 (summary), (“Impact Assessment”), p. 11. In the same vein, see also Council Conclusions of 6 December 2018 on the future strategic direction in the field of internal security, Doc. 14806/18, para. 1: “the European Union’s strategic direction in the field of internal security calls for deepening the integrated and holistic approach in the area of freedom, security and justice as set out in the EU treaties, to support the Member States in their core objective to guarantee internal security”.
 
106
Impact Assessment, p. 33 ff. Another feasibility study will be launched by the Commission in the first quarter of 2019 to further explore technical, operational and legal aspects of interoperability between the customs and JHA systems for both EU border management and customs operations. See Council of the European Union, Assessment Report of Practitioners—Executive Summary of 4 December 2018, Doc. 15142/18.
 
107
These rights include: the right to dignity (Article 1), the right to life (Article 2), the respect for private life (Article 7), the protection of personal data (Article 8), the right to asylum (Article 18), the prohibition of refoulement (Article 19), the principle of non-discrimination (Article 21), the right to an effective remedy (Article 47).
 
108
Regulation (EU) 603/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on the establishment of “Eurodac” for the comparison of fingerprints for the effective application of Regulation (EU) 604/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 June 2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person and on requests for the comparison with Eurodac data by Member States’ law enforcement authorities and Europol for law enforcement purposes, and amending Regulation (EU) 1077/2011 establishing a European Agency for the operational management of large-scale IT systems in the area of freedom, security and justice, OJ L 180/1. On the recast of the Eurodac Regulation, extending its scope to the identification of irregularly entering and staying third-country nationals for return purposes, refer to: Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of The Council of 4 May 2016, On the establishment of “Eurodac” for the comparison of biometric data for the effective application of [Regulation (EU) 604/2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person], for identifying an illegally staying third-country national or stateless person and on requests for the comparison with Eurodac data by Member States’ law enforcement authorities and Europol for law enforcement purposes, and amending Regulation (EU) 1077/2011 establishing a European Agency for the operational management of largescale IT systems in the area of freedom, security and justice (recast), COM(2016) 272 final, 2016/0132 (COD).
 
109
Contra, see Impact Assessment Report of 6 April 2016 on the establishment of an EU Entry Exit System Accompanying the document Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing an Entry/Exit System (EES) to register entry and exit data and refusal of entry data of third country nationals crossing the external borders of the Member States of the European Union and determining the conditions for access to the EES for law enforcement purposes and amending Regulation (EC) 767/2008 and Regulation (EU) 1077/2011 and Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Regulation (EU) 2016/xxx as regards the use of the Entry/Exit System (EES), SWD(2016) 115 final, Part 1/3, p. 27.
 
110
See Recitals 29, 71, 156 and Articles 5(1)(f), 24(1), 25(1)(2), 28, 39, 32 of Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation), OJ L 119/1 (“GDPR”). The applicability of the GDPR to the subject matter is expressly recognised by the “twin” proposals. Indeed, their Chapter VII regulates issues regarding data processors, confidentiality, monitoring, rights of data subjects and limits to international transfer, in accordance with the standards set forth in the GDPR. The GDRP also applies to data recording, storage and processing for border surveillance purposes under Article 1(2) of EES Regulation, while the processing of personal data by Member States’ designated authorities is subject to the application of the Directive (EU) 2016/680 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data by competent authorities for the purposes of the prevention, investigation, detection or prosecution of criminal offences or the execution of criminal penalties, and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA (Police and Criminal Data Protection Directive), OJ L 119/89 (“PCDPD”).
 
111
See Article 25 of GDPR.
 
112
FRA, Under watchful eyes: biometrics, EU IT systems and fundamental rights, 2018, p. 88 ff.
 
113
Joined Cases C-293/12 and C-594/12 Digital Rights Ireland and Seitlinger et al. [2014] ECLI:EU:C:2014:238, paras. 54–66. In general, on the effectiveness of the right to access a remedy, see Case C-562/13 Centre public d’action sociale d’Ottignies-Louvain-la-Neuve v. Moussa Abdida [2014] ECLI:EU:C:2014:2453, para. 45 ff.
 
114
C-291/12 Michael Schwarz v. Stadt Bochum [2013] ECLI:EU:C:2013:670, paras. 61–62.
 
115
Article 41 EUCFR. On the scope and extension of the right to good administration in immigration and asylum procedures, see C-604/12 H. N. v. Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform and Others [2014] ECLI:EU:C:2014:302, paras. 49–50; C‑249/13 Khaled Boudjlida v. Préfet des Pyrénées-Atlantiques [2014] ECLI:EU:C:2014:2431, para. 30 ff.
 
116
Opinion of Advocate General Kokott delivered on 18 July 2007 in the Case C-275/06 Productores de Música de España (Promusicae) v. Telefónica de España SAU, ECLI:EU:C:2007:454, para. 53. On the ongoing construction of an untransparent “Security Union” by means of security-sensitive data exchange between the levels of EU governance, refer to Curtin (2018).
 
117
According to Frontex, 12 seconds is the amount of time each EU border guard should be granted to decide on admission of travellers at EU’s external borders. Avoiding delays is of paramount importance to keep border checks acceptable and legitimate in people’s eyes, while guaranteeing the smooth functioning of the borders as filters for commercial and human mobility. See FRONTEX, 12 seconds to decide. In search of excellence: Frontex and the principle of best practice, 2015.
 
118
eu-LISA, Smart Borders Pilot Project. Report on the technical conclusions of the Pilot, Volume 2, Annex 7. See also: Fundamental rights implications of the obligation to provide fingerprints for Eurodac, FRA Focus 5/2015.
 
119
Digital Rights Ireland cit., paras. 29-52-59.
 
120
Directive 2006/24/EC of 15 March 2006 on the retention of data generated or processed in connection with the provision of publicly available electronic communications services or of public communications networks and amending Directive 2002/58/EC, OJ L 105/54.
 
121
Recitals 33 ff. of EES Regulation.
 
122
Article 24 of Regulation (EC) 810/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 July 2009 establishing a Community Code on Visas (Visa Code), OJ L 243/1.
 
123
Case C-203/15 Tele2 Sverige [2016] ECLI:EU:C:2016:970, paras. 96–102.
 
124
M.K. v. France (App. No. 19522/09), ECtHR, judgment of 18 April 2013, para. 40; Centrum För Rättvisa v. Sweden (App. No. 35252/08), ECtHR, judgment of 19 June 2018.
 
125
See the twin proposals, p. 9.
 
126
Ibid.
 
127
Recital 39 and Article 5(1)(a) of GDPR. See also Digital Rights Ireland cit., paras. 61–62; Tele2 Sverige cit., para. 119.
 
128
EDPS, Opinion 06/2016 of 21 September 2016 on the Second EU Smart Borders Package. Recommendations on the revised Proposal to establish an Entry/Exit System.
 
129
Brouwer (2011).
 
130
Recital 50 and Article 5(1)(b) of GDPR.
 
131
Article 16 TFEU.
 
132
Clearly, Articles 72–73, 276 TFEU and Article 4(2) TEU should be considered as rules on the division of executive powers between the national and supranational level of EU governance. See, amplius, Peers (2013); WP, Opinion 01/2015 of 16 June 2015 on Privacy and Data Protection Issues relating to the Utilisation of Drones, WP231.
 
133
On its interpretation with reference to data protection, see Digital Rights Ireland cit., para. 51. In more general terms, see e.g. Case C-419/14 WebMindLicenses Kft. v. Nemzeti Adó-és Vámhivatal Kiemelt Adó- és Vám Főigazgatóság [2015] ECLI:EU:C:2015:832, paras. 80–82.
 
134
Csernatoni (2016).
 
135
On the responsibility of controllers for data accuracy see Recital 39 and Article 5(1)(d) of GDPR.
 
136
As pointed out by the Advocate General Sharpston, in its Opinion delivered on 12 February 2015 in the Case C-554/13 Z. Zh. and O. v. Staatssecretaris van Veiligheid en Justitie, ECLI:EU:C:2015:94, para 63, in some cases migrants with false papers try to escape identification to protect themselves, even though their fear does not amount to a fear of persecution for asylum purposes or these persons do not seek asylum in Europe. It is for national authorities to determine “what [public order] interests require protection and in what respect the individual concerned constitutes a danger to [public order]. In other words, there should be no automatic decisions depriving an individual of a right to voluntary departure simply because he is convicted of travelling with a false document and could therefore be an illegally staying third-country national”.
 
137
For instance, the law adopted in Italy for the protection of unaccompanied minors foresees a complex process of age determination, involving numerous specialists and precluding the use of technological tools for automatic age determination. See the Law No. 47 of 7 April 2017, in O.J. (“Gazzetta Ufficiale” No. 93 of 21 April 2017 (so-called “Legge Zampa”), Article 5(3) ff.
 
138
Joined Cases C-188/10 and C-189/10 Aziz Melki e Sélim Abdeli [2010] ECLI:EU:C:2010:363, para. 75; Case C-23/12 Mohamad Zakaria [2013] ECLI:EU:C:2013:24. See also: Recital 38, Articles 10 and 11(3) of PCDPD.
 
139
Lyon (2013).
 
140
EDPS, Opinion 7/2017 of 2 May 2017 on the new legal basis of the Schengen Information System; SIS II Supervision Coordination Group, Report of 31 January 2018 on an overview of access to the SIS II.
 
141
Article 22(1) of GDPR. See also: WP, Guidelines of 3 October 2017 on Automated individual decision-making and profiling for the purposes of Regulation 2016/679.
 
142
On the relevance of accountability for effective data protection see: Recital 85 and Article 5(2) of GDPR.
 
143
HLEG Final Report, p. 47.
 
144
Examining the creation of Eurosur, para. 3.
 
145
Cassarino (2011).
 
146
For instance, on the Italian technical agreements with Libya of 28 November 2013, authorising the use of UAVs on Libyan skies, see: Ministero della Difesa, Italia—Libia: accordi di cooperazione, Roma 28 novembre 2013.
 
147
See, for instance: Working Arrangement (WA) of 16 April 2013 establishing operational cooperation between Frontex and the State Border Service of the Republic of Azerbaijan, para. 3.2; WA of 22 February 2012 establishing operational cooperation between Frontex and the National Security Council of the Republic of Armenia, para. 3.2; WA of 19 January 2012 establishing operational cooperation between Frontex and the Nigerian Immigration Service, para. 4; WA in the form of an exchange of letters between Frontex and Migration, Asylum, Refugees, Regional Initiative (MARRI) Regional Centre, para. 1.
 
148
They are: Frontex Risk Analysis Network, Eastern Borders Risk Analysis, Western Balkans Risk Analysis Network and Africa Frontex Intelligence Community. On their function within the “defence-security nexus”, see EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator, JHA agencies’ role in counter-terrorism, 6146/18 ADD 1 EXT 1, 6 April 2018, p. 13.
 
149
Article 11 of Eurosur Regulation.
 
150
Frontex, FRAN Quarterly Q4, 2013, p. 5.
 
151
EUROSUR: new tools to save migrants’ lives at sea and fight cross-border crime, MEMO/13/580 of 19 June 2013. Interestingly, the obligation to “save lives and keep migrants out of harm’s way” is also central in the call for a globally managed migration under the UN Global Compact on Migration. See United Nations, Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, Final Draft of 11 July 2018, para. 13, available at: https://​www.​un.​org/​pga/​72/​wp-content/​uploads/​sites/​51/​2018/​07/​migration.​pdf.
 
152
For a comment on the scope and content of this customary norm, codified in Article 89 of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 397), see Moreno-Lax (2011).
 
153
Refer, in particular, to Articles 9 and 10 of Regulation (EU) 656/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 establishing rules for the surveillance of the external sea borders in the context of operational cooperation coordinated by the European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union, OJ L 189/93.
 
154
Opinion of the Committee of the Regions, Smart Borders package, (2014/C 114/15), OJ C 114/90, para. 11.
 
155
Moreno-Lax (2018).
 
156
WP, Opinion 03/2013 of 2 April 2013 on Purpose Limitation, WP203, p. 4.
 
157
Indeed, Article 41(1) of EES Regulation reads as follows: “[d]ata stored in the EES shall not be transferred or made available to any third country, to any international organisation or to any private entity”.
 
158
Ibid., Recitals 36, 39, 41, 43 and Articles 3(2), (3), and 41(2) of EES Regulation.
 
159
Ibid., Article 41(2): “By way of derogation from paragraph 1 of this Article, the data referred to in Article 16(1) and points (a), (b) and (c) of Article 17(1) of this Regulation may be transferred by border authorities or immigration authorities to a third country or to an international organisation listed in the Annex I to this Regulation in individual cases, if necessary in order to prove the identity of third-country nationals for the sole purpose of return”.
 
160
Article 45 of GDPR.
 
161
See Article 41(2)(a) of EES Regulation.
 
162
Ibid., Article 41(2)(b).
 
163
Ibid., Article 41(2)(c).
 
164
Ibid., Article 41(6).
 
165
Communication to the European Parliament and the Council of 10 January 2017, Exchanging and Protecting Personal Data in a Globalised World, COM(2017) 7 final.
 
166
See Article 46(2)(e) and (f) of GDPR.
 
167
Ibid., Article 46(2)(a) and 46(3)(b) of GDPR.
 
168
Case C-362/14 Maximillian Schrems v. Data Protection Commissioner [2015] ECLI:EU:C:2015:650, paras. 73, 74 and 96.
 
169
Opinion 1/15 [2017] ECLI:EU:C:2017:592, para. 214. For a comment, refer to Carpanelli and Lazzerini (2017).
 
170
Recital 72 of PCDPD.
 
171
EDPS, Opinion on the Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on “A new era for aviation - Opening the aviation market to the civil use of remotely piloted aircraft systems in a safe and sustainable manner”, para. 16.
 
172
United Kingdom, House of Lords, 7th Report of Session 2014–2015 on Civilian Use of Drones in the EU, London: The Stationery Office Limited, 5 March 2015.
 
173
It has to be recalled, inter alia, that the Regulation (EU) 2018/1139 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2018, On common rules in the field of civil aviation and establishing a European Union Aviation Safety Agency, and amending Regulations (EC) 2111/2005, (EC) 1008/2008, (EU) 996/2010, (EU) 376/2014 and Directives 2014/30/EU and 2014/53/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Regulations (EC) 552/2004 and (EC) 216/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Council Regulation (EEC) 3922/91, OJ L 212/1, does not apply to drones “while carrying out military, customs, police, search and rescue, firefighting, border control, coastguard or similar activities or services under the control and responsibility of a Member State, undertaken in the public interest by or on behalf of a body vested with the powers of a public authority, and the personnel and organisations involved in the activities and services performed by those aircraft” (Article 2(3)(a)). In these fields, it is for the Member States to freely decide whether to apply their national law or the abovementioned Regulation “in particular with a view to achieving safety, interoperability or efficiency gains” (Recital 10). For a general description of EU policy on drones, see Marzocchi (2015).
 
174
Hayes et al. (2014).
 
175
Marin (2017), p. 111.
 
176
J-C. Juncker, State of the Union 2016, 14 September 2016. It has to be noted that a general reference to the right to dignity is included in many IT instruments and in the SBC and that the CJEU has often reiterted the justiciability of this right as a self-standing entitlement (see, e.g., Case C-377/98 Netherlands v. European Parliament and Council [2001] ECLI:EU:C:2001:523, para. 70 ff.).
 
177
See Article 46(2)(e) and (f) of GDPR.
 
178
Council Conclusions of 8–9 June 2017 cit.: “Protection of the EU’s external borders, including land borders, should lead to resuming the normal functioning of the Schengen area. The Estonian presidency is convinced that to achieve this, the EU must make the best use of databases and modern IT-solutions, which allow for rapid exchange of information, when and if needed, also to make the fight against terrorism and organized crime more efficient”.
 
179
On the potential use of enhanced interoperability to better protect vulnerable migrants, including children and trafficked people, see HLEG Final Report, p. 8.
 
180
Noll (2015).
 
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Metadaten
Titel
High-Tech Migration Control in the EU and Beyond: The Legal Challenges of “Enhanced Interoperability”
verfasst von
Philip Hanke
Daniela Vitiello
Copyright-Jahr
2019
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05648-3_1