nach oben

Erschienen in:

2017 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

3. How to Increase Occupants Safety with No Architectural Modifications: Defining Effective Wayfinding Systems

verfasst von : Gabriele Bernardini

Erschienen in: Fire Safety of Historical Buildings

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Einloggen

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche, um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config

KI-gestützte Suche

Aus

Abstract

Wayfinding is ones of the most significant issues during a fire evacuation in Historical Buildings, mainly because of possible building layout complexity, level of occupants’ familiarity with the architectural spaces, and potential environmental modifications due to fire effects. Proper wayfinding systems could be able to increase safety levels for occupants by reducing the egress time. Furthermore, these solutions are generally able to maintain a low impact on the building itself (and on its layout). However, according to a Behavioral design (BD) approach, they should be designed in order to effective provide the needed assistance to evacuees, by “interacting” with their behaviours. This chapter firstly offers an organization of existing wayfinding strategies, by mainly distinguishing active and passive systems (since they can bring or not “dynamic” directional information to the evacuees). The attention is focused on the interaction with human behaviors and the possibility to apply the systems (and related building components) to Building Heritage scenarios. Methodologies to evaluate the evacuation facilities effectiveness are outlined according to previous researches and BD studies recommendations.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Vorheriges Kapitel Fire Safety and Building Heritage: The Occupants Perspective

Nächstes Kapitel Application to a Case Study: Fire Safety in Historical Theaters

For instance, compare with [20] categories.

In addition, some codes, as for NFPA 101, include the use of “NO EXIT” sign where “any door, passage, or stairway that is neither an exit nor a way of exit access and that is located or arranged so that it is likely to be mistaken for an exit.

Organism because it really has a life!

http://www.widerfunnel.com/how-behavioural-design-creates-the-best-user-experiences/(last access: 20/01/2016).

An “hot-spot” can be defined as a location within the architectural space or one of its building components, which is characterized by emerging problems, referring to the inquired issue, due to man-man and man-environment interferences. For instance, in case of fire risk and evacuation, congestions and bottlenecks points along paths and exits are the main “hot spot”.

Compare this criterion with e.g.: examples of compliance alternatives for fire suppression, smoke detectors and alarm systems given by NFPA 914, Annex E.

Otherwise, they are called “static signage system” [39].

Compare, e.g., with BS 5266-1, 7 and 8 definition, and requirements for emergency lightings.

Maintenance is needed for emergency lightings and not for signs.

This implies the necessity of certain recommended distances between two consecutive signs.

Depending on the producer’s declaration and in-situ verifies according to guidelines such as [15, 21].

Additional sources are: NFPA 101; ASTM E 2072-14 Standard Specification for Photoluminescent (Phosphorescent) Safety Markings; ANSI/UL 1994, Standard for Luminous Egress Path Marking Systems. Additional guidelines of producers can be retrieved here [42].

In case of fire or short circuit.

Nevertheless, recent works on individuals’ perception of evacuation signs seem to confirm a normal distribution of these values [25].

An exception is represented by floor proximity exit signs, that are placed near to the floor, as suggested by NFPA 101.

For Italian applications.

And also the “prescriptive” codes approach, which limit the impact man-fire interactions in evacuation.

Such as the one proposed by Siemens “Total Building Solution” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ycp6k5zDtF0. Accessed 28 Oct 2016.

Li Q, Plocher T (2010) Time-dependent classification and signaling of evacuation route safety. US Patent 7,683,793 B2; Mendelson E (2011) US 7,924,149 B2; Richter C, Sanso A, Rockett D, Nersu H (2008) System and method for dynamically and efficiently directing evacuation of a building during an emergency condition. US 7,579,945 B1.

Videotapes analyses allows to determine motion quantities and behavioral patterns but do not succeed in determining the effective instant of individuals choice and the related cognitive aspects [25].

As reported by [69], p. 1779.

Compare with M levels in PD 7974-6:2004.

The easiest way to simulate smoke is using eye-patch with different visible ray degree of transmissivity [30, 46]. In fact some smoke/fog machines use fluids which could leave a damaging residue on valuable historic building surfaces.

For group tests, they could be affected by social attachment phenomena and density phenomena.

These data are also essential for the development of simulations models and the definition of emergency time lines and management strategies for planners and rescuers.

Scott DW (2009) Sturges’ rule. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics 1:303–306. doi:10.1002/wics.35.

While each class should include at least 3 values.

However, more than 3; a very low significance of results can be noticed in these conditions.

The risk index R is a classic combined KPI [88].

Elsorady DA (2013) Assessment of the compatibility of new uses for heritage buildings: the example of Alexandria National Museum, Alexandria. Egypt J Cultural Herit 15:511–521. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2013.10.011 CrossRef

Marrion CE (2016) More effectively addressing fire/disaster challenges to protect our cultural heritage. J Cultural Herit 20:746–749. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2016.03.013 CrossRef

Bernardini G, Azzolini M, D-Orazio M, et al (2016) Intelligent evacuation guidance systems for improving fire safety of Italian-style historical theatres without altering their architectural characteristics. J Cultural Heri. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2016.06.008

Naziris IA, Lagaros ND, Papaioannou K (2016) Optimized fire protection of cultural heritage structures based on the analytic hierarchy process. J Build Eng. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2016.08.007

Ran H, Sun L, Gao X (2014) Influences of intelligent evacuation guidance system on crowd evacuation in building fire. Autom Constr 41:78–82. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2013.10.022 CrossRef

Wong LT, Lo KC (2007) Experimental study on visibility of exit signs in buildings. Build Environ 42:1836–1842. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.02.011 CrossRef

Jeon G-Y, Kim J-Y, Hong W-H, Augenbroe G (2011) Evacuation performance of individuals in different visibility conditions. Build Environ 46:1094–1103. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.11.010 CrossRef

Carattin E, Brannigan V (2012) Controlled evacuation in historical and cultural structures: requirements, limitations and the potential for evacuation models. In: Proceedings of the 5th international symposium on human behavior in fire 2012. Interscience Comms, London, UK, pp 447–459

Tuomisaari M (1997) Visibility of exit signs and low-location lighting in smoky conditions. VTT Build Technol 13:389–396

10.

Kobes M, Helsloot I, de Vries B et al (2010) Way finding during fire evacuation; an analysis of unannounced fire drills in a hotel at night. Build Environ 45:537–548. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.07.004 CrossRef

11.

Pu S, Zlatanova S (2005) Evacuation route calculation of inner buildings. In: Research book chapter in geo-information for disaster management. Springer, pp 1143–1161

12.

Chu L (2010) A RFID-Based hybrid building fire evacuation system on mobile phone. In: Sixth international conference on intelligent information hiding and multimedia signal processing. pp 155–158. doi:10.1109/IIHMSP.2010.46

13.

Veichtlbauer A, Pfeiffenberger T (2013) Dynamic evacuation guidance as safety critical application in building automation. In: S. Bologna et al. (ed) CRITIS 2011. Springer, pp 58–69

14.

Van Willigen WH, Neef RM, Lieburg a. Van, Schut MC, (2009) WILLEM: A wireless intelligent evacuation method. I: Third international conference on sensor technologies and applications. pp 382–387. doi:10.1109/SENSORCOMM.2009.64

15.

International Organization for Standardization (2004) ISO 16069:2004. Graphical symbols - Safety signs - Safety way guidance systems (SWGS)

16.

Government I (2015) Occupational Safety and Healthcare on work places (D.lgs. 9 aprile 2008, n. 81, Testo coordinato con il D.Lgs. 3 agosto 2009, n. 106) (in Italian). http://www.puntosicuro.it/_resources/files/TU81-08-Ed.Settembre2015.pdf. Accessed 8 Oct 2010

17.

Italian Organization for Standardization (UNI) (2004) UNI 7543:2004 - Safety colours and safety signs

18.

International Organization for Standardization (2011) ISO 3864-1:2011 - Annex A, Relationship between dimensions of safety signs and distance of observation

19.

US department of Labour (2014) Subpart E - Means of Egress. Design and construction requirements for exit routes. Occupational Safety and Health Standards. https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=9724. Accessed 6 Oct 2016

20.

Parliament of the United Kingdom (1996) Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulation 1996. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1996/341/pdfs/uksi_19960341_en.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct 2016

21.

German Institute for Standardization (2009). DIN 67510, Photoluminescent pigments and products

22.

London Fire Brigade (2015). heritage and buildings of special interest (GN 80). http://www.london-fire.gov.uk/Documents/GN_80.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct 2016

23.

Confederation of Fire Protection Associations Europe (2013) Managing fire protection of historic buildings. http://cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/uploads/files/guidelines/CFPA_E_Guideline_No_30_2013_F.pdf. Accessed 8 Oct 2016

24.

Italian Government (1996) DM 19/08/1996: Fire safety criteria for entertainment public spaces (Regola tecnica di prevenzione incendi per la progettazione, costruzione ed esercizio dei locali di intrattenimento e di pubblico spettacolo). http://www.vigilfuoco.it/aspx/ReturnDocument.aspx-IdDocumento=52. Accessed 30 July 2016

25.

Occhialini M, Bernardini G, Ferracuti F et al (2016) Fire exit signs: the use of neurological activity analysis for quantitative evaluations on their perceptiveness in a virtual environment. Fire Saf J 82:63–75. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2016.03.003 CrossRef

26.

Proulx G, Bnichou N (2009) Photoluminescent stairway installation for evacuation in office buildings. Fire Technol. 46:471–495. doi:10.1007/s10694-009-0102-z CrossRef

27.

Kobes M, Helsloot I, de Vries B, Post JG (2010) Building safety and human behaviour in fire: a literature review. Fire Saf. J 45:1–11. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2009.08.005 CrossRef

28.

Carattin E (2011) Wayfinding architectural criteria for the design of complex environments in emergency scenarios. In: Capote JA, Alvear D (eds) Evacuation and human behavior in emergency situations. Advanced research workshop proceedings. Universitad de Cantabria, Santander, pp 209–222

29.

Fahy RF, Proulx G (2001) Toward creating a database on delay times to start evacuation and walking speeds for use in evacuation modeling. In: 2nd International symposium on human behaviour in fire. MA, USA, Boston, pp 175–183

30.

D’Orazio M, Bernardini G, Tacconi S et al (2016) Fire safety in Italian-style historical theatres: how photoluminescent wayfinding can improve occupants- evacuation with no architecture modifications. J Cultural Herit 19:492–501. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2015.12.002 CrossRef

31.

Nassar K (2011) Sign visibility for pedestrians assessed with agent-based simulation. Transp Res Rec: J Transp Res Board 2264:18–26. doi:10.3141/2264-03 CrossRef

32.

Xie H, Filippidis L, Gwynne S, Galea ER, Blackshields D, Lawrence PJ (2007) Signage legibility distances as a function of observation angle. J Fire Protect Eng 17:41–64. doi:10.1177/1042391507064025 CrossRef

33.

Xie H, Filippidis L, Galea ER et al (2012) Experimental analysis of the effectiveness of emergency signage and its implementation in evacuation simulation. Fire Mater 36:367–382. doi:10.1002/fam.1095

34.

Simeone D (2015) Simulating human behaviours in buildings. A previsional model (Simulare il comportamento umano negli edifici. Un modello previsionale-in Italian). Gangemi Editore per le lettere le scienze e le arti, Rome, Italy

35.

Marmot A (2002) Architectural determinism. Does design change behaviour? Br J Gen Pract 52:252–253

36.

Bernardini G, D’Orazio M, Quagliarini E (2016) Towards a “behavioural design” approach for seismic risk reduction strategies of buildings and their environment. Saf Sci 86:273–294. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2016.03.010 CrossRef

37.

Yu E, Giorgini P, Maiden N, Mylopoulos J (2011) Social modeling for requirements engineering. The MIT Press, Cambridge

38.

Sagun A, Bouchlaghem D, Anumba CJ (2011) Computer simulations vs. building guidance to enhance evacuation performance of buildings during emergency events. Simul Modell Pract Theory 19:1007–1019. doi:10.1016/j.simpat.2010.12.001 CrossRef

39.

Samah KAFA, Hussin B, Basari ASH (2014) The effectiveness of dynamic signage for autonomous evacuation navigation system: an experimental study. In: 3rd international conference on circuits, systems, communications, computers and applications (CSCCA -14), pp 1–9

40.

Ministry of Interior (Italy) (1992) D.M. 20-05-1992 n. 569 - Fire safety in historical buildings used as museum and art galleries. www.vigilfuoco.it/sitiVVF/ascolipiceno/downloadFile.aspx?s=85&f=11286. Accessed 10 Oct 2016

41.

British Standards Institution (2000) BS 5499-4:2000-Safety signs, including fire safety signs. Code of practice for escape route signing, 2000

42.

PSA/PSPA (2008). PSA/PSPA Guide to the Use of Photoluminescent Safety Markings. http://www.everglow.us/pdf/photoluminescent-egress-markings-guide-exit-stairs-psa-pspa.pdf. Accessed 30 Oct 2016

43.

Liao J-H, Shaw D (2013) The use of laser scattering and energy harvesting technology for fire evacuation. Saf Sci 55:165–172. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2013.01.013 CrossRef

44.

Ferreira TM, Vicente R, Mendes Raimundo, da Silva JA et al (2016) Urban fire risk: Evaluation and emergency planning. J Cultural Herit. 181–189. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2016.01.011

45.

Paulsen T (1994) The effect of escape route lnforemation on mobility and way finding under smoke logged conditions. In: Proceedings of fourth international symposium on fire safety science. pp 693–704

46.

Jeon G-Y, Hong W-H (2009) An experimental study on how phosphorescent guidance equipment influences on evacuation in impaired visibility. J Loss Prevent Process Ind 22:934–942. doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2009.08.008 CrossRef

47.

Yenumula K, Kolmer C, Pan J, Su X (2015) BIM-controlled signage system for building evacuation. Procedia Eng 118:284–289. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.428 CrossRef

48.

Nelson HE, Mowrer FW (2002) Emergency movement. In: SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering. National Fire Protection Association, pp 367–380

49.

Seyfried A, Steffen B, Klingsch W, Boltes M (2005) The fundamental diagram of pedestrian movement revisited. J Stat Mech 2005:1–13CrossRef

50.

Teixeira T, Dublon G, Savvides A (2010) A survey of human-sensing: methods for detecting presence, count, location, track, and identity. ACM computing surveys. http://thiagot.com/papers/teixeira_techrep10_survey_of_human_sensing.pdf. Accessed 24 Oct 2016

51.

Guan Q, Li C, Guo X, Wang G (2014) Compressive classification of human motion using pyroelectric infrared sensors. Pattern Recognit Lett 49:231–237. doi:10.1016/j.patrec.2014.07.018 CrossRef

52.

Kuipers M, Tom A, Pinheiro T et al (2014) Building space-use analysis system - A multi location/multi sensor platform. Autom Constr 47:10–23. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2014.07.001 CrossRef

53.

D’Orazio M, Longhi S, Olivetti P, Bernardini G (2015) Design and experimental evaluation of an interactive system for pre-movement time reduction in case of fire. Autom Constr 52:16–28. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2015.02.015 CrossRef

54.

Chu L, Wu S-J (2012) A real-time fire evacuation system with cloud computing. J Converg Inf Technol 7:208–215. doi:10.4156/jcit.vol7.issue7.26

55.

Groner NE (2016) A decision model for recommending which building occupants should move where during fire emergencies. Fire Saf J 80:20–29. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2015.11.002 CrossRef

56.

Ahn J, Han R (2012) An indoor augmented-reality evacuation system for the smartphone using personalized pedometry. Human-centric Comput Inf Sci 2:18. doi:10.1186/2192-1962-2-18 CrossRef

57.

Wang J, Zhao H, Winter S (2015) Integrating sensing, routing and timing for indoor evacuation. Fire Saf J 78:111–121. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2015.08.009 CrossRef

58.

Kobes M, Helsloot I, de Vries B, Post J (2010) Exit choice, (pre-)movement time and (pre-)evacuation behaviour in hotel fire evacuation - Behavioural analysis and validation of the use of serious gaming in experimental research. Procedia Eng 3:37–51. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2010.07.006 CrossRef

59.

Øien K, Utne IB, Tinmannsvik RK, Massaiu S (2011) Building safety indicators: Part 2 - application, practices and results. Saf Sci 49:162–171. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2010.05.015

60.

Doncaster clinical commissioning group (2014) Fire Safety Policy. http://www.doncasterccg.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Fire-Safety-Policy-2014.pdf. Accessed 30 Oct 2016

61.

Korhonen T, Hostikka S (2010) Fire dynamics simulator with evacuation: FDS + Evac technical reference and user’s guide. VTT Working Papers 119. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f25c/089e83048beefc756bf17a210f0efff0b8b3.pdf. Accessed 12 Oct 2016

62.

D’Orazio M, Spalazzi L, Quagliarini E, Bernardini G (2014) Agent-based model for earthquake pedestrians- evacuation in urban outdoor scenarios: behavioural patterns definition and evacuation paths choice. Saf Sci 62:450–465. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2013.09.014 CrossRef

63.

Ronchi E, Kuligowski ED, Reneke PA, et al (2013) The process of verification and validation of building fire evacuation models. NIST Technical Note (n.1822)

64.

Helbing D, Johansson AF (2010) Pedestrian, crowd and evacuation dynamics. In: Encyclopedia of complexity and systems science. Springer, pp 6476–6495

65.

D’Orazio M, Quagliarini E, Bernardini G, Spalazzi L (2014) EPES-Earthquake pedestrians’ evacuation simulator: a tool for predicting earthquake pedestrians’ evacuation in urban outdoor scenarios. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 10:153–177. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2014.08.002 CrossRef

66.

Johansson A, Helbing D, Al-Abideen HZ, Al-Bosta S (2008) From crowd dynamics to crowd safety: a video-based analysis. Adv Complex Syst 11:497–527CrossRefMATH

67.

Shiwakoti N, Sarvi M (2013) Understanding pedestrian crowd panic: a review on model organisms approach. J Transp Geogr 26:12–17. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.08.002 CrossRef

68.

Averill JD, Mileti DS, Peacock RD et al (2005) World Trade Center Disaster Occupant Behavior, Egress, and Emergency Communications (NIST NCSTAR 1-7). U.S. Government printing office, Washington, D.C. https://www.nist.gov/node/599651?pub_id=101046. Accessed 10 Oct 2016

69.

Yang X, Wu Z (2012) Civilian monitoring video records for earthquake intensity: a potentially unbiased online information source of macro-seismology. Nat Hazards 65:1765–1781. doi:10.1007/s11069-012-0447-3 CrossRef

70.

Gwynne SMV, Boyce KE, Kuligowski ED, et al (2016) Pros and cons of egress drills. In: Interflam 2016. Fire science and engineering conference. Interscience Comms, Windsor, UK, pp 1657–1670

71.

Ministry of Interior (Italy) (2015) DM 03/08/2015: Fire safety criteria (Approvazione di norme tecniche di prevenzione incendi, ai sensi dell’articolo 15 del decreto legislativo 8 marzo 2006, n. 139.). http://www.vigilfuoco.it/sitiVVF/ascolipiceno/downloadFile.aspx?s=85&f=56102. Accessed 26 Sept 2016

72.

Shi L, Xie Q, Cheng X et al (2009) Developing a database for emergency evacuation model. Build Environ 44:1724–1729. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.11.008 CrossRef

73.

Kinateder M, Ronchi E, Nilsson D (2014) Virtual reality for fire evacuation research. In: Federated conference on computer science and information systems. pp 319–321

74.

Cosma G, Ronchi E, Nilsson D (2016) Way-finding lighting systems for rail tunnel evacuation: a virtual reality experiment with Oculus Rift. J Transp Saf Sec 8:101–117. doi:10.1080/19439962.2015.1046621

75.

Vilar E, Rebelo F, Noriega P et al (2014) Effects of competing environmental variables and signage on route-choices in simulated everyday and emergency wayfinding situations. Ergonomics 57:511–524. doi:10.1080/00140139.2014.895054 CrossRef

76.

McConnell NC, Boyce KE, Shields J et al (2010) The UK 9/11 evacuation study: analysis of survivors- recognition and response phase in WTC1. Fire Saf J 45:21–34. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2009.09.001 CrossRef

77.

Helbing D, Farkas JI, Molnar P, Vicsek T (2002) Simulation of pedestrian crowds in normal and evacuation situations. In: Pedestrian and evacuation dynamics. Berlin, pp 21–58

78.

Riad JK, Norris FH, Ruback RB (1999) Predicting evacuation in two major disasters: risk perception, social influence, and access to resources1. J Appl Soc Psychol 29:918–934CrossRef

79.

Babrauskas V, Fleming JM, Russell BD (2010) RSET/ASET, a flawed concept for fire safety assessment. Fire Mater 34:341–355. doi:10.1002/fam CrossRef

80.

Confederation of Fire Protection Associations Europe (2009) Fire safety engineering concerning evacuation from buildings - Guidelines No 19:2009. http://www.cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/uploads/files/guidelines/CFPA_E_Guideline_No_19_2009.pdf. Accessed 30 July 2016

81.

Zheng X, Zhong T, Liu M (2009) Modeling crowd evacuation of a building based on seven methodological approaches. Build Environ 44:437–445. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.04.002 CrossRef

82.

Thompson P, Nilsson D, Boyce K, McGrath D (2015) Evacuation models are running out of time. Fire Saf J 78:251–261. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2015.09.004 CrossRef

83.

Schadschneider A, Klingsch W, Klpfel H et al (2009) Evacuation dynamics: empirical results, modeling and applications. Encycl Complex Syst Sci, pp 3142–3176 la-english

84.

Zipf GK (1950) Human behavior and the principle of least effort. J Clin Psychol 6:306. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(195007)6:3<306::AID-JCLP2270060331>3.0.CO;2-7

85.

Lakoba TI, Kaup DJ, Finkelstein NM (2005) Modifications of the Helbing-Molnar-Farkas-Vicsek social force model for pedestrian evolution. Simulation 81:339–352. doi:10.1177/0037549705052772 CrossRef

86.

Rabiaa C, Foudil C (2010) Crowd simulation influenced by agent’s socio-psychological state. J Comput 2:48–54

87.

Proulx G (2002) Movement of people: the evacuation timing. In: SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering. National Fire Protection Association, pp 342–366

88.

Villagran De Leon JC (2006) Vulnerability: a conceptual and methodological review. http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:1871/pdf3904.pdf. Accessed 14 Sept 2016

89.

Yi-fan L, Jun-min C, Jie J et al (2011) Analysis of crowded degree of emergency evacuation at “Bottleneck” position in subway station based on stairway level of service. Procedia Eng 11:242–251. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2011.04.653 CrossRef

90.

Fruin JJ (1971) Designing for pedestrians: a level of service concept. Highw Res Rec 355:1–15

91.

Klpfel T, Meyer-Knig H (2014) PedGo Guardian: an assistant for evacuation decision making. In: Weidmann U, Kirsch U, Schreckenberg M (eds) Pedestrian and evacuation dynamics 2012. Springer International Publishing, pp 445–454

92.

Kunwar B, Simini F, Johansson A (2014) Large scale pedestrian evacuation modeling framework using volunteered geographical information. Transp Res Procedia 2:813–818. doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2014.09.092 CrossRef

93.

Purser DA (1995) Toxicity assessment of combustion products. In: National Fire Protection Association (ed) SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering, 2nd edn. Quincy, MA, pp 2/28–2/146

94.

Hull TR, Stec AA (2010) Introduction to fire toxicity. In: Fire toxicity. Elsevier, pp 3–25

Titel: How to Increase Occupants Safety with No Architectural Modifications: Defining Effective Wayfinding Systems
verfasst von: Gabriele Bernardini
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Fire Safety of Historical Buildings
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-55743-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-55744-1

Copyright-Jahr: 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55744-1_3

Springer Professional

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu Ihrer Lizenz zu erhalten.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Springer Professional "Technik"

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"