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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

2. Human Rights and the Roma: Key Concepts

verfasst von : Jozefien Van Caeneghem

Erschienen in: Legal Aspects of Ethnic Data Collection and Positive Action

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter takes a closer look at the concepts that hold the key to researching human rights and the Roma. It concerns: (1) the closely connected and inter-related concepts equality and anti-discrimination, the distinction between direct and indirect discrimination, and the need to complement a formal and a substantive approach to equality; (2) the controversial notions race and ethnicity and the interpretation given to and difference between these overlapping social constructs; (3) the multi-dimensional concept social inclusion, and pluralism as an alternative approach to integration in order to promote diversity and counter assimilation; (4) minority rights protection and its two-pillar structure, the right to identity and the prohibition of assimilation as interrelated building blocks of minority rights protection, and minorities’ right to the effective participation in public life; (5) privacy as a relative, dynamic, and multi-dimensional concept that holds personal autonomy at its core and entails positive and negative obligations for State authorities; (6) personal data protection, the key difference between various types of data, the applicable legal frameworks, and the role of supervisory committees and data protection authorities; (7) socio-economic rights, including: (a) the right to education and its dual role in minorities’ protection and promotion; (b) the right to housing and the protection of traveling as an important element of Roma culture and identity; (c) the right to work as a broad right that fulfils economic, social, and developmental needs; (d) the right to health, of which States must realise the bare essentials immediately.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Introduction

Nächstes Kapitel Ethnic Data Collection: Key Elements, Rules and Principles

The notion of discrimination has been used in Council of Europe and EU documents on Roma since 1990. Today, it is a central notion in documents and debates. See Sect. 2.3 on social inclusion, diversity and pluralism. Ignăţoiu-Sora (2011), pp. 1697 and 1698.

Commission Communication, An EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020 (5 April 2011), p. 2.

Commission Communication, Report on the evaluation of the EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020 (4 December 2018), p. 8.

Shelton (2014), p. 127; Humphrey (1986), p. 27.

Report of the Special Rapporteur on combating racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance on the comprehensive implementation of and follow-up to the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action (20 August 2015), par. 8.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (10 December 1948) (UDHR).

International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (21 December 1965) (ICERD), arts. 1, 2 and 5.

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (16 December 1966) (ICCPR), arts. 2 and 26.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (16 December 1966) (ICESCR), arts. 2 and 3.

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (18 December 1979) (CEDAW), arts. 1 and 2.

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (31 December 2006), arts. 2 and 3.

Schiek (2009), p. 10.

Nikolaidis (2015), p. 30.

Lauterpacht (1945), p. 115.

Shelton (2014), p. 12.

Fredman (2011), p. 4.

Id. at p. 5.

Id. at p. 6.

Farkas (2011), p. 32.

Makkonen (2010), p. 27.

Makkonen (2010), p. 27. See Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.1) for reflections on the situation and the particular vulnerability of Roma in Europe.

Farkas (2011), p. 32.

ICERD, art. 1.1.

The ICCPR covers race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. See ICCPR, arts. 2 and 26. HR Committee, General Comment No. 18: Non-Discrimination (10 November 1989), para. 7. Shelton (2014), pp. 134 and 135.

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (4 November 1950) (ECHR). An in-depth discussion of the notion proportionality can be found in Part II on positive action. EctHR, Case “Relating to Certain Aspects of the Laws on the Use of Languages in Education in Belgium” v. Belgium (Belgian Linguistics case), Judgment (23 July 1968), para. 10.

Smis et al. (2011), p. 525; Farkas (2011), p. 32; European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) and CoE (2011), p. 21; Makkonen (2010), p. 27.

EctHR, Thlimmenos v. Greece, Judgment (6 April 2000, GC), para. 44.

Id. at para. 46.

EctHR, D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic, Judgment (13 November 2007), para. 196.

Council Directive 2000/43/EC implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (29 June 2000) (RED), art. 2.1.

RED, art. 2.1(a). Suggested further reading: FRA and CoE (2018b), pp. 43–52.

Fredman (2011), p. 166.

RED, art. 2.1(b). Suggested further reading: FRA and CoE (2018b), pp. 53–59.

Smith (2011), pp. 143 and 144; Henrard (2008), p. 111; Tobler (2005), p. 114; Simon (2004), p. 27; Loenen (1999), pp. 197–202.

Fredman (2011), p. 177.

Nikolaidis (2015), p. 75; Howard (2010), p. 45; Banton (1994), p. 45.

The CERD Committee uses the term unjustifiable disparate impact upon a group distinguished by race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin. CERD Committee, General Recommendation No. 14: Definition of Discrimination (Art. 1 para. 1) (22 March 1993), paras. 1 and 2.

CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 20: Non-Discrimination in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Art. 2, para. 2) (2 July 2009), paras. 7 and 10 to 12. HR Committee, General Comment No. 18: Non-Discrimination (10 November 1989), para. 7.

It is argued that the EctHR implicitly recognized or at least took steps towards the concept of indirect discrimination in a number of cases. See, for instance: EctHR, Belgian Linguistics case, Judgment (23 July 1968), para. 13 (focus on effects of measures). EctHR, Hugh Jordan v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (4 May 2001), para. 154 (disproportionately prejudicial effects on a particular group irrespective of the intent). EctHR, Nachova v. Bulgaria, Judgment (6 July 2005, GC), para. 157 (shifting the burden of proof to the respondent). Howard (2010), pp. 53 and 54.

Henrard (2008), p. 110.

Thlimmenos concerned the refusal to appoint a Jehovah’s Witness as chartered accountant due to his past felony conviction for refusing to enlist in the army. Marko (2013, pp. 114 and 115) disagrees and states that the structure of the Thlimmenos case does not compare to the definition of indirect discrimination, because of the focus on the single case rather than the factual impact of allegedly neutral provisions on a group. EctHR, Thlimmenos v. Greece, Judgment (6 April 2000, GC), para. 44; Nikolaidis (2015), p. 75; Howard (2010), p. 54; Henrard (2008), p. 109; Loenen and Hendriks (2000), p. 1102.

Henrard (2008, p. 111) warns that by putting so much emphasis on the importance of intent, the EctHR seems to be questioning the concept of indirect discrimination. EctHR, D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic, Judgment (13 November 2007), paras. 184, 195 and 217; Nikolaidis (2015), p. 75; Spiliopoulou Åkermark (2013), p. 40; Howard (2010), p. 57.

RED, recital 15.

See Sect. 2.2 for a discussion on the notions race and ethnicity. Other sensitive discrimination grounds on which statistical information is often lacking include religion or belief, sexual orientation and disability. Data gaps on Roma communities in Europe are considered in Chap. 5 (Sect. 5.1). Bell (2007), p. 255; Schiek (2007), pp. 398 and 399.

Henrard (2008), p. 27. This will be discussed further in Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.1.5) where the support of indirect discrimination claims in criminal proceedings is described as one of the five main benefits of ethnic data collection for anti-discrimination purposes.

Resolution of the European Parliament on Non-Discrimination and Equal Opportunities for All – A Framework Strategy (14 June 2006), para. 18.

EctHR, D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic, Judgment (13 November 2007), para. 188. This case will be discussed further in Sect. 2.7.2 on the role of education in minority protection and empowerment. See also Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.1.5) where supporting indirect discrimination claims in legal proceedings is put forward as one of the benefits of ethnic data collection, and Chap. 5 (Sect. 5.2.4) on the significance of international and European monitoring and litigation.

At European level, statistical evidence must show a substantial figure or a particularly high proportion in order to shift the burden of proof. FRA and CoE (2018b), pp. 242–247; Nikolaidis (2015), p. 77; Bell (2007), p. 253; Schiek (2007), pp. 397 and 398. Statistical data can also be relevant with regards to the establishment of direct discrimination. See: De Schutter (2008), p. 238; Bell (2007), p. 255.

EctHR, D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic, Judgment (13 November 2007), para. 195.

Statistics were available in this case, but they were not considered sufficient by themselves to give rise to a presumption of (indirect) discrimination as they did not prove the existence of a general policy in which Roma were automatically placed in separate classes. On the other hand, the fact that insufficient command of Croatian was only applied to Roma pupils as a criterion to be placed in separate classes, was found to give rise to such a presumption. EctHR, Oršuš and Others v. Croatia, Judgment (16 March 2010, GC), paras. 152 and 153. This case will be discussed further in Sect. 2.7.2.3 on the role of education in minority protection and empowerment. See also Chap. 5 (Sect. 5.2.4) on the significance of international and European monitoring and litigation in the framework of ethnic data collection on the Roma minority.

FRA and CoE (2018b), p. 247.

Nikolaidis (2015), p. 77.

Id.

Nikolaidis (2015), pp. 50–52 and 53–57; Fredman (2011), p. 8; Howard (2010), pp. 109 and 110.

Schiek (2002), p. 303.

Fredman (2011), pp. 8–14.

For further discussion on these points of criticism of the formal equality concept, see: Howard (2010), pp. 111–114.

See UDHR, art. 7. ECHR, art. 14. RED, art. 2.2(a). Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (7 December 2000) (CFEU), art. 20.

Howard (2010), p. 114.

Fredman (2011), p. 14; Koldinská (2011), p. 244.

Fredman (2011), pp. 2 and 14.

Howard (2010), p. 115; Schiek (2002), p. 304.

Fredman (2011), p. 242; Howard (2010), pp. 115 and 134. Goodwin (2009b), p. 145; Fredman (2005), pp. 390–391; Schiek (2002), p. 304; Barnard and Hepple (2000), pp. 562–585.

EctHR, Loizidou v. Turkey, Judgment (23 March 1995, GC), para. 33.

The right to formal and to substantive equality co-exist in the case law of the EctHR. The EctHR does not draw a distinction between both approaches, which complicates analysis of the theory of interpretation of article 14 ECHR. Reasonable accommodation and how it compares to positive action will be discussed in Chap. 6 (Sect. 6.1.3.2). Nikolaidis (2015), pp. 75–82 and 85. For further reading, see: Nikolaidis (2015), pp. 50–85.

EctHR, Thlimmenos v. Greece, Judgment (6 April 2000, GC), para. 44. Nikolaidis (2015), p. 75; Henrard (2008), p. 108.

This was briefly addressed in Chap. 1 on the importance of respecting Roma identity (Sect. 1.2.4) and when introducing the main topics of the book (Sect. 1.3). Commission Green Paper, Equality and non-discrimination in an enlarged European Union (28 May 2004), pp. 7–10; Koldinská (2011), pp. 245 and 257; Howard (2010), pp. 136 and 137; Niessen (2001), p. 15; MacEwen (1995), pp. 22 and 25.

Farkas (2011), p. 32; FRA and CoE (2011), pp. 35 and 37; Smis et al. (2011), p. 525.

Positive action can also be non-preferential. See Chap. 6 (Sects. 6.2.2–6.2.4) on the broad spectrum of positive action measures. FRA and CoE (2011), p. 35.

CEDAW, art. 4. ICERD, arts. 1.4 and 2.2. Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1 February 1995) (FCNM), arts. 4.2 and 4.3. RED, art. 5. The applicable international and European frameworks on positive action are considered in Chaps. 7 and 8 respectively.

This is the case for the ICCPR, the ICESCR and the ECHR. See Chaps. 7 and 8 on the international and European framework on positive action.

De Schutter (2007), p. 856. See Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.1.4) on the role of ethnic data collection in the implementation and evaluation of policies. See also Chap. 6 (Sect. 6.3.4) on the link between ethnic data and positive action.

Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), General Policy Recommendation No. 13: Combating Anti-Gypsyism and Discrimination against Roma (24 June 2011), recital 4. European Network Against Racism (ENAR) (2012), p. 2; Lador-Lederer (1968), p. 15. The present-day situation of Roma in Europe, including the discrimination this minority faces, was discussed in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.1).

Makkonen (2010), pp. 16 and 18; Makkonen (2006), pp. 74 and 75.

Id.

See Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.2) on how the context-dependency and variability of these notions affects ethnic data collection practices.

This will be considered in Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.4) on choosing ethnic categories for ethnical classification purposes and in Chap. 5 (Sect. 5.3) on challenges to the construction of ethnic categories for Roma.

Hermanin et al. (2013), p. 5.

ICERD, preamble. RED, recital 6. Durban Declaration and Plan of Action (8 September 2001), paras. 6 and 7. UNESCO Statement on race and racial prejudice (September 1967). UNESCO Proposal on the biological aspects of race (August 1964). UNESCO Statement on the nature of race and race differences (June 1951). UNESCO Statement on race (July 1950). ECRI, General Policy Recommendation No. 7: National legislation to combat racism and racial discrimination (13 December 2002), ref. 1.

Chopin and Do (2010), p. 22; Tyson (2004), p. 113.

France, Proposition of law to delete the word “race” from our legislation (Proposition de loi tendant à suppression du mot “race” de notre legislation) (13 May 2013). Adopted by the General Assembly at the first reading.

Finland, Non-Discrimination Act 1325/2014 (Yhdenvertaisuuslaki 1325/2014) (30 December 2014), section 6.1.

Austria, Federal Act Governing Equal Treatment (Gleichbehandlungsgesetz).

Sweden, Act 307/2003 Prohibiting Discrimination (Lag 2003:307 om förud mot diskriminering) (5 June 2003).

German Basic Law currently still contains the word race in art. 3.3. Baer (2010), p. 86.

Möschel (2013), pp. 16 and 17; Chopin and Do (2010), p. 22. Makkonen (2006), p. 74.

ECRI, General Policy Recommendation No. 7: National legislation to combat racism and racial discrimination (13 December 2002), para. 1(a). Cardinale (2004), p. 84 (ref. 7).

CERD Committee, Concluding Observations on Sweden (23 September 2003), para. 6.

Gerards (2007), pp. 48 and 49; Tyson (2004), p. 113.

EctHR, Timishev v. Russia, Judgment (13 December 2005), para. 55. This was confirmed in EctHR, Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Judgment (22 December 2009, GC), para. 43.

RED, recital 6. European Network of Equality Bodies (Equinet) (2012), p. 10; James (2008), p. 32; Makkonen (2006), p. 74.

James (2008), p. 32.

Möschel (2013), p. 16; Ringelheim (2008/9), pp. 88 and 89. Makkonen (2006), p. 74.

Such ambiguity is reflected in the RED, which lacks a definition of racial origin because it rejects theories claiming the existence of separate races, yet stipulates that people can be subjected to discrimination on this ground. Makkonen (2006), pp. 73 and 74.

Hermanin et al. (2013), p. 5. The controversial and contested nature of race was discussed in Sect. 2.2.1. See also Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.3.2) on positive action as a missing piece of Roma inclusion.

Ritzer (2015), p. 293; Howard (2010), p. 65; Ringelheim (2008/9), pp. 88 and 89; Nowak (2005), p. 649; Blank et al. (2004), pp. 2, 3 and 25; Bulmer and Solomos (1998), p. 822.

Fredman (2011), pp. 50 and 51; Howard (2010), pp. 63–66; Blank et al. (2004), pp. 25–38.

Fredman (2011), pp. 50 and 51.

Equinet (2012), p. 10; Makkonen (2010), pp. 16–18; Ringelheim (2008/9), pp. 88 and 89.

100

See also Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.2) on how to define racial and ethnic origin for data collection purposes. Equinet (2012), p. 10; Howard (2010), p. 67; Makkonen (2010), p. 16.

101

Ritzer (2015), p. 293; Makkonen (2010), p. 21; Ringelheim (2006/7), pp. 65 and 66; Bulmer and Solomos (1998), p. 822.

102

Ahmed (2011), p. 21; Makkonen (2006), p. 73; Haug (2001), p. 307.

103

Nowak (2005), p. 649; Ritzer (2015), p. 293; Bulmer (1996), p. 35.

104

Haug (2001), p. 307.

105

United Nations Statistics Division (2008), para. 2.161; United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (2006), para. 419.

106

EctHR, Thlimmenos v. Greece, Judgment (6 April 2000, GC), para. 55. This was confirmed in EctHR, Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Judgment (22 December 2009, GC), para. 43.

107

Baumann (1999), p. 21.

108

Rughiniș (2010), pp. 348 and 349.

109

Rughiniș (2010), pp. 348 and 349; Ballard (2002), p. 111.

110

World Health Organization (WHO) (2010), p. 5; Makkonen (2010), p. 21; Makkonen (2006), p. 76.

111

Gerards (2007), pp. 47–50. This will be discussed further in Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.2) on defining racial and ethnic origin for data collection purposes, Chap. 4 on choosing ethnic categories for ethnical classification purposes (Sect. 4.4) and on ethnically identifying people with different categories (Sect. 4.5), and Chap. 5 on challenges to the construction of ethnic categories for Roma (Sect. 5.3) and on the appropriateness of the different ethnical identification approaches when collecting data on Roma (Sect. 5.4).

112

See Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.5) on the four approaches to ethnic identification and Chap. 5 (Sect. 5.4) on the appropriateness of these approaches to collect data on Roma.

113

EctHR, Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Judgment (22 December 2009, GC), para. 43. EctHR, Timishev v. Russia, Judgment (13 December 2005), para. 55; Ritzer (2015), p. 293; FRA and CoE (2011), p. 105.

114

ICERD, art. 1.

115

EctHR, Timishev v. Russia, Judgment (13 December 2005), para. 56. The EctHR confirmed this in EctHR, Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Judgment (22 December 2009, GC), para. 43. Farkas (2017, p. 9) points out that the EctHR broadened its interpretation of ethnic discrimination by taking social marginalisation into consideration in various Roma cases, including D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic (2007) and Yordanova and Others v. Bulgaria (2012).

116

Bell (2008), p. 16.

117

See Sect. 2.1 on equality and anti-discrimination.

118

Ignăţoiu-Sora (2011), p. 1698.

119

Goodwin (2009b), pp. 150 and 151.

120

See Chap. 1 on the particular vulnerability of Roma (Sect. 1.2.1) and on intersectional discrimination (Sect. 1.2.3). Goodwin (2009b), p. 150; Ringold et al. (2005), p. 13.

121

Socio-cultural exclusion is exclusion on the basis of language, religion or ethnic origin. Ringold et al. (2005), p. 12.

122

Goodwin (2009b), p. 156.

123

Xanthaki (2005), p. 521.

124

This was briefly addressed in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.3.1) when highlighting the intersection of discrimination and poverty. Guy et al. (2010); Dediu (2007), pp. 124 and 125; Xanthaki (2005), p. 521.

125

Commission Communication, An EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020 (5 April 2011), p. 4. See also: Commission Staff Working Document, Roma in Europe: The Implementation of European Union Instruments and Policies for Roma Inclusion – Progress Report 2008–2010 (7 April 2010), pp. 18, 22, 23 and 35. Various authors also address the importance of positive action and data collection to enhance the social inclusion of Roma, including: Guy et al. (2010), p. 5; Collins (2003), p. 37; Lipott (2012), p. 85.

126

Dediu (2007), pp. 124 and 125. See Chap. 6 (Sect. 6.3.3) on political will as the third prerequisite for effective and successful positive action schemes.

127

Decision No. 1098/2008/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the European Year for Combating Poverty and Social Exclusion (2010) (22 October 2008). Resolution of the Council and of the Ministers for Social Affairs meeting within the Council on combating social exclusion (29 September 1989). Commission Communication, An EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020 (5 April 2011). Commission Communication, Europe 2020: A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth (3 March 2010). ENAR (2012), pp. 1 and 2; Marlier et al. (2007), pp. 3–5.

128

Treaty on European Union (Consolidated version) (TEU).

129

TEU, art. 3.3.

130

Mera and Iov (2013), p. 118.

131

ENAR (2012), pp. 1 and 2.

132

Hollo (2006), pp. 4 and 5.

133

Ivanov (2012), pp. 80 and 90. See Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.4) on the key role of cultural identity in Roma inclusion, Chap. 5 (Sects. 5.5.4 and 5.8.2) on the importance of actively including Roma in ethnic data collection practices, and Chap. 10 (Sect. 10.1) on the importance of a bottom-up approach to positive action.

134

Ivanov (2012), p. 90.

135

Ivanov (2012), p. 90. See Sect. 2.3.3 for a discussion on the notions integration and assimilation. The prohibition of assimilation is also cited as one of the building blocks of minority rights protection in Sect. 2.4.3.

136

Liégeois (1994), p. 293.

137

Ivanov (2012), p. 90.

138

Section 2.4 zooms in on minority rights protection. O’Nions (2007), p. 41.

139

O’Nions (2007), p. 40; O’Nions (1995), p. 6.

140

See Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.4) on cultural identity, where assimilation policies were also mentioned. Albert (2011), pp. 1–4; O’Nions (1995); Human Rights Watch 1992), pp. 5–9, 19–36, 53, 57 and 123; O’Nions (2007), p. 40.

141

The CFEU states in art. 22 that “the Union shall respect cultural, religious and linguistic diversity”. The word shall implies that it is more than a recommendation, but it falls short of constituting an individual right.

142

FRA and CoE (2011), p. 9.

143

See Sect. 2.7.2 on the promotion of pluralism through education. Howard (2010), p. 134.

144

O’Nions (2007), p. 41.

145

Howard (2010), pp. 134, 135 and 158. See Part II on positive action and Chap. 6 (Sect. 6.1.3.2) for a description of reasonable accommodation and how it differs from positive action.

146

Nikolaidis (2015), p. 79.

147

This was discussed in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.1.3) on the lack of uniform status of Roma in Europe.

148

As explained in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.1.3), the need for minimum standards for minorities in the EU has been highlighted.

149

The Permanent Court of International Justice ruled that States have a positive obligation to adopt special measures in relation to minorities. Permanent Court of International Justice, Advisory Opinion regarding Minority Schools in Albania, Opinion (6 April 1935), paras. 88 and 95. See also: Memorandum of the United Nations Secretary-General on The Main Types and Causes of Discrimination (1953), para. 6; Ahmed (2011), pp. 26 and 27; Pentassuglia (2002), pp. 90–93; Henrard (2000), pp. 8–10; Benoît-Rohmer (1996), p. 16; Thornberry (1991), p. 10. Some authors argue that the protection of minorities does not require special measures because the prohibition of discrimination contained in general human rights instruments suffices. See, for instance: Räikkä (1996), pp. 13–16; O’Brien (1984), p. 21. For further discussion on the FCNM not adding anything, see: Henrard (2008), pp. 93–95.

150

See Sect. 2.1 on equality and anti-discrimination.

151

Protection of minority identity was briefly introduced in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.3).

152

FCNM, art. 1. Explanatory Report to the FCNM (1 February 1995), para. 30.

153

Ahmed (2011), p. 27.

154

Henrard (2000), pp. 8–11 and 56. See also Alfredsson, who underlines that special measures flow from the rule of equal rights and do not constitute privileges: Alfredsson (1999), p. 8.

155

Dediu (2007), p. 115.

156

It was the first UN document to deal exclusively with minorities. The Declaration is inspired on but not limited by art. 27 ICCPR. Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (3 February 1992) (UNMD), recital 4; Verstichel (2009), pp. 248 and 249; Hernard (2000), p. 186.

157

Regional and minority languages refer to factual criteria are not legal notions. The Charter includes examples nor a list of languages. Ratification is slow, with 25 signatures and ratifications and eight signatures without ratifications as of 9 May 2019. For an up-to-date overview of ratifications and signatures, see: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/signatures (Accessed 9 May 2019). European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (4 November 1992) (ECRML); Explanatory Report to the ECRML (5 November 1992), para. 21; Thornberry and Martín Estebanez (2004), pp. 139 and 140.

158

As of 9 May 2019, 39 States have signed and ratified the FCNM, while four others have signed but not yet ratified. For an up-to-date overview of ratifications and signatures, see: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/157/signatures (Accessed 9 May 2019).

159

Riddell (2002), pp. 6 and 7.

160

Thornberry and Martín Estebanez (2004), p. 89.

161

According to Thornberry and Martín Estebanez (2004, p. 92), however, at least the provisions parallel to obligations in the ECHR, such as the freedom of expression and religion, could be directly applied at the domestic level. Explanatory Report to the FCNM (1 February 1995), para. 11.

162

Henrard (2008), p. 96.

163

Only a limited number of States Parties to the FCNM explicitly cite the Roma as a minority group enjoying protection of the FCNM: Germany (only Sinti and Roma of German citizenship), the Republic of North Macedonia (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia until February 2019; Roma people living within Macedonian borders), Slovenia (Roma community living in Slovenia) and Sweden (Roma). O’Nions (2007), p. 70. See Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.1.3) for more on the lack of uniform status of Roma across Europe.

164

ECHR, art. 14. Protocol 12 to the ECHR (4 November 2000), art. 1.

165

CFEU, art. 21.1.

166

Medda-Windischer (2009), p. 127. The right to identity will be discussed in Sect. 2.4.3.

167

Tavani (2012), p. 7.

168

Id. at pp. 9–15.

169

Id. at pp. 14, 15, 174 and 177.

170

Ahmed (2011), pp. 178 and 179.

171

See Sect. 2.1.3 on formal and substantive equality.

172

EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), paras. 93 and 96. The Chapman judgment will be discussed further in Sect. 2.7.3.3 on the EctHR’s case law on housing and how it provides only limited protection of minority lifestyles.

173

EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), paras. 93 and 96. EctHR Research Division (2011), p. 9.

174

Verstichel (2009), pp. 164 and 165. For more on this, see Chap. 8 (Sect. 8.1.1) on the CoE framework on positive action.

175

Henrard (2000), p. 60. See Sect. 2.1.3 on the distinction between formal and substantive equality.

176

Henrard (2000), pp. 9 and 60; Ahmed (2011), pp. 32 and 33; Benoît-Rohmer (1996), p. 16.

177

See Chap. 8 (Sect. 8.1.2.2) on the CoE framework on positive action.

178

FCNM, art. 4.3. A discussion on positive action as a derogation or as an aspect of equality can be found in Chap. 6 (Sect. 6.1.5).

179

Explanatory Report to the FCNM (1 February 1995), para. 39. The proportionality principle is further addressed in Chap. 6 (Sect. 6.1.2.2) as a the key elements of positive action, and in Chap. 8 (Sect. 8.1.3) on positive action in the CoE framework.

180

Arts. 2 and 3 UNMD include a formal approach to equality, whereas art. 4.1 requires the adoption of special measures, which art. 8.3 defines as not prima facie violating the principle of equality. Art. 7.2 ECRML requires States to eliminate unjustified distinctions, exclusion, restrictions or preferences on the basis of the use of regional or minority language as well as the adoption of special measures to promote equality of regional and minority language users. Commentary of the Working Group on Minorities to the United Nations Declaration on Rights of Persons belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (4 April 2005), paras. 82 and 83.

181

ACFC, Third Opinion on the Czech Republic (1 July 2011), paras. 46 and 47; ACFC, First Opinion on Ireland (22 May 2003), paras. 26 and 34 to 39; ACFC, First Opinion on Hungary (22 September 2000), para. 18; De Schutter (2008), pp. 242 and 243.

182

See, for example: ACFC, Fourth Opinion on Spain (3 December 2014), paras. 14, 25 to 30. ACFC, Third Opinion on Germany (27 May 2010), paras. 18, 48, 53 to 58 and 210. ACFC, Second Opinion on Ireland (6 October 2006), paras. 33 to 36 and 51. ACFC, Second Opinion on the Czech Republic (24 February 2005), paras. 10, 32 to 37, 47, 51, 99, 114, 116, 191 and 195. The link between ethnic data and positive action makes up the focus of Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.1.4) on the benefits of ethnic data collection and of Chap. 6 (Sect. 6.3.4) on the prerequisites for effective positive action schemes.

183

Henrard (2000), pp. 11–13.

184

Id. at pp. 12 and 13.

185

Medda-Windischer (2009), p. 172.

186

Tavani (2012), pp. 172 and 173.

187

See Sect. 2.3.3 on the promotion of diversity and the countering of assimilation through pluralism. Working Paper submitted by Asbjørn Eide on the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (13 May 1998), p. 3.

188

Medda-Windischer (2009), p. 173. For more on transversality, see: Eide (2001a), pp. 25–42.

189

Medda-Windischer (2009), p. 173.

190

For instance: ECHR, art. 8 (respect for private and family life, home and correspondence) and Protocol 1 to the ECHR (20 March 1952), art. 2 (right to education). This was addressed in Sect. 2.4.2 on the shift towards substantive equality in the case law of the EctHR. See Sect. 2.5.2 on the right to privacy and Sect. 2.7.2 on the right to education. Medda-Windischer (2009), p. 175.

191

UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (27 November 1978).

192

Lerner (2003), p. 176.

193

UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (27 November 1978), art. 1 para. 2, art. 2 paras. 1 and 3, art. 3, art. 5. Lerner (2003), p. 178.

194

Explanatory Report on the Draft Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (25 September 1978).

195

Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, New York (3 February 1992), art. 1.

196

The FCNM was adopted on 10 November 1994 and entered into force on 1 February 1998. Section 2.4.5 focuses on cultural diversity and the importance of awareness-raising and inter-cultural dialogue.

197

Other provisions promoting and protecting minority identity in the FCMN include art. 6 (promotion of mutual respect and understanding and co-operation and prohibition of discrimination on the basis of identity), arts. 7 to 9 (freedom of peaceful assembly, freedom of association, freedom of expression, freedom of thought, conscience and religion), arts. 10 to 11 (linguistic rights), arts. 12 to 14 (education rights).

198

See, for example: ACFC, Third Opinion on Estonia (1 April 2011), para. 60. ACFC, Third Opinion on Germany (27 May 2010), para. 74. ACFC, Second Opinion on Austria (8 June 2007), para. 62. The importance of close co-operation with Roma during legal and policy processes was first underlined in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.4). See also Sect. 2.4.4 of this chapter on effective participation of minorities in public life.

199

Ahmed (2011), pp. 33 and 34. See Sect. 2.3 for a discussion on the notions integration and assimilation.

200

Eide (2008), p. 10.

201

UNMD, arts. 1, 2.1 and 4.2. ECRML, arts. 7 and 12. Like the FCNM, these articles refer to important aspects of one’s identity such as religion, language, and culture.

202

ICCPR stipulates in art. 27 that “(i)n those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion, or to use their own language”. HR Committee, General Comment No. 23: The rights of minorities (Art. 27) (8 April 1994), paras. 1, 6.1 and 6.2. Hernard (2000), pp. 165 and 166.

203

By requiring special measures, art. 27 ICCPR falls under the second pillar of minority rights protection. Hernard (2000), p. 159; Tomuschat (1983), p. 952. Suggested further reading on art. 27 ICCPR: Hernard (2000), pp. 156–185.

204

ACFC, Commentary on Effective Participation of Persons Belonging to National Minorities in Cultural, Social and Economic Life and in Public Affairs (27 February 2008), para. 1. Ahmed (2011), pp. 38 and 39.

205

Eide (2008, p. 11) points out that art. 15 FCNM could be interpreted as including a degree of autonomy regarding to matters specific to minorities. Arts. 3 to 7 and art. 16 FCNM also relate to aspects of effective participation of minorities in public affairs. For an in-depth discussion on effective participation, see: ACFC, Commentary on Effective Participation of Persons Belonging to National Minorities in Cultural, Social and Economic Life and in Public Affairs (27 February 2008); Medda-Windischer (2009), pp. 211–229; Verstichel (2009), pp. 285–327.

206

Verstichel (2009), p. 66.

207

Hofmann (2008), p. 178.

208

Ahmed (2011), pp. 38 and 39. Part II of the book focuses on positive action.

209

The Explanatory Report to the FCNM also includes a non-exhaustive list of measures States can take to promote effective participation of minorities, such as consultation with, involvement of, undertaking studies with, effective participation of minorities and the establishment of a local or decentralised form of governments. Explanatory Report to the FCNM (1 February 1995), para. 80.

210

See, for example: ACFC, Fourth Opinion on Slovakia (3 December 2014), paras. 7, 24, 25, 77 and 79 to 82. ACFC, Fourth Opinion on Spain (3 December 2014), paras. 93 to 113. ACFC, Third Opinion on Italy (15 October 2010), paras. 118 to 144.

211

ACFC, Commentary on Effective Participation of Persons Belonging to National Minorities in Cultural, Social and Economic Life and in Public Affairs (27 February 2008), para. 30.

212

See, for example: ACFC, Fourth Opinion on Slovakia (3 December 2014), para. 26. ACFC, Second Opinion on Romania (24 November 2005), para. 34, 37 and 40. ACFC, First Opinion on Hungary (22 September 2000), para. 17. ACFC, First Opinion on Slovakia (22 September 2000), para. 21. Eide (2013), p. 49.

213

See Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.2) on the five main risks of ethnic data collection. See also Chap. 5 on large data gaps on Roma communities in Europe (Sect. 5.1), the methodological challenges of collecting data on Roma (Sects. 5.3–5.6), and the key principles governing data collection on Roma (Sect. 5.8).

214

Public life is defined more broadly than political participation. UNMD, arts. 2.2 and 4.5. Verstichel (2009), p. 251.

215

UNMD, arts. 2.3 and 5.

ECRML, art. 13.

FCNM, recital 7.

FCNM, art. 6.2.

ACFC, Third Opinion on Norway (30 June 2011), para. 72.

220

Id. at paras. 72 and 74.

221

Resolution 1740 of the Parliamentary Assembly on the situation of Roma in Europe and relevant activities of the Council of Europe (22 June 2010), art. 15.8. See Sect. 1.2.1 on anti-Gypsyism.

222

Recommendation CM/Rec(2008)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on policies for Roma and/or Travellers in Europe (20 February 2008), Title II (aim). Inter-cultural mediation can play an important role in this regard, as will be explained in Chap. 11.

223

Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Consolidated version) (TFEU). Treaty Establishing the European Community (Nice consolidated version) (21 February 2001), former art. 151.4. Ahmed (2011), p. 185. See also Sect. 2.7.2.3 for a consideration of the role of education in minority protection and empowerment.

224

European Commission (2010), pp. 1–8; Ahmed (2011), p. 185.

225

See Sect. 2.1 on equality and anti-discrimination.

226

See Sect. 2.6 on personal data protection.

227

228

Gellert et al. (2013), p. 82.

229

Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data (28 January 1981) (Convention 108), art. 1. The Protocol amending the Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data (10 October 2018), which modernises Convention 108 (Convention 108+), also highlights the close connection between privacy and data protection. Personal data protection and the data protection reform at CoE level will be considered in Sect. 2.6. The personal data protection rules and principles included in Convention 108(+) will be analysed in Chap. 3 (Sects. 3.4, 3.5 and 3.7).

230

Regulation 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (27 April 2016) (GDPR), preamble 4. The GDPR’s predecessor, Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (24 October 1995) (Directive 95), also stressed the interrelatedness of privacy and personal data protection in its preamble. Personal data protection and the data protection reform at EU level will be further discussed in Sect. 2.6. The personal data protection rules and principles included in the GDPR will be analysed in Chap. 3 (Sects. 3.4, 3.5 and 3.7).

231

Recommendation CM/Rec(97)18 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States concerning the Protection of Personal Data Collected and Processed for Statistical Purposes (30 September 1997), appendix art. 3.1 Explanatory Memorandum of Recommendation No.R(97)18 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States concerning the Protection of Personal Data Collected and Processed for Statistical Purposes (30 September 1997), para. 65.

232

For references to the ECHR, see, for instance: GDPR, preamble 73. Explanatory Report to Convention 108 (28 January 1981), paras. 19 and 55. The notion personal data protection will be introduced in Sect. 2.6. The data protection rules and principles included in the GDPR and Convention 108(+) will be discussed in Chap. 3 (Sects. 3.4, 3.5 and 3.7). Chap. 3 also includes the analysis of personal data protection through the right to private life (Sect. 3.6).

233

The ICCPR prohibits arbitrary and unlawful interferences with privacy by States authorities or natural or legal persons. See Sect. 2.5.4 on the conditions to which interferences with the right to privacy must adhere to. HR Committee, General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (The Right to Privacy) (8 April 1988), para. 1.

234

The choice for communication in art. 7 CFEU was deliberate in order to let it reflect the expensansive interpretation given to the notion correspondence by the EctHR in its case law. González Fuster (2014), p. 200; Chalmers et al. (2006), p. 255.

235

Notwithstanding the absence of a similar second paragraph in art. 7 CFEU, art. 52 CFEU contains relatively similar requirements for limitations to the right to respect for private in art. 7 CFEU as those included in art. 8.2 ECHR. Moreover, art. 57 CFEU determines that the meaning and scope of the right to respect for private life will be the same as the corresponding right in the ECHR. Note from the Praesidium on the Draft Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union – Text of the explanations relating to the complete text of the Charter as set out in CHARTE 4487/00 CONVENT 50 (11 October 2000); González Fuster (2014), pp. 200 and 201. Privacy interferences are considered in Sect. 2.5.4.

236

Finn et al. (2013), p. 4; Joseph and Castan (2013), pp. 533 and 534; Solove (2008), pp. 12–38; Whitman (2004), pp. 1153 and 1154; Gutwirth (2002), pp. 29–31.

237

Gutwirth (2002), pp. 29 and 30.

238

Id. at p. 31.

239

Joseph and Castan (2013), pp. 533 and 534; Nowak (2005), pp. 377, 378 and 385; Wilborn (1998), p. 833.

240

Gutwirth (2002), pp. 30 and 83.

241

Joseph and Castan (2013), pp. 534.

242

See, for example: HR Committee, Leonid Raihman v. Latvia, Views (28 October 2010), para. 8.2. HR Committee Coeriel et al. v. The Netherlands, Views (31 October 1994), para. 10.2.

243

Laferty (2014), pp. 522 and 523.

244

EctHR, S. and Marper v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (4 December 2008, GC), para. 66. EctHR, Peck v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (28 January 2003), para. 57. EctHR, P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (25 September 2001), para. 57. EctHR, Niemietz v. Germany, Judgment (16 December 1992), para. 29.

245

European Commission on Human Rights (EcmHR), Niemietz v. Germany, Decision (29 May 1991), para. 55. The EctHR took a similar attitude: EctHR, Niemietz v. Germany, Judgment (16 December 1992), para. 29.

246

Private life can include activities of a professional or business nature because it is not always possible to clearly distinguish between private and professional or business life. EctHR, Niemietz v. Germany, Judgment (16 December 1992), para. 29. Prior the this judgment, the EcmHR already decided this in the case X v. Iceland from 1975 concerning a prohibition of keeping dogs in Reykjavik. EcmHR, X v. Iceland, Decision (18 May 1975); Rainey et al. (2014), pp. 361 and 362.

247

Peck concerned the disclosure of closed circuit television footage to the media by the local authority operating the system, resulting in the publishing and broadcasting of the applicant’s image in the media. P.G. and J.H. concerned the placement of a listening device in the applicants’ flat and at the police station and the applicants’ conviction and imprisonment based on the recordings thereof. EctHR, Peck v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (28 January 2003), para. 57. EctHR, P.G. and J.H. v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (25 September 2001), para. 57. The EctHR confirmed this in Christine Goodwin v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (11 July 2002, GC), para. 90. Laferty (2014), p. 526.

248

Privacy thus covers aspects of the physical and the social identity of human beings. EctHR, Pretty v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (29 April 2002), para. 61. EctHR, Mikulić v. Croatia, Judgment (7 February 2002), para. 53. EctHR, X and Y v. the Netherlands, Judgment (26 March 1985), para. 22.

249

EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 96. Chapman was previously discussed in Sect. 2.4.2 on the achievement of full and effective equality for minorities through the implementation of special measures. It will also be cited in Sect. 2.7.3.3 when analysing the case law of the EctHR on housing.

250

The right to private life thus includes the right to self-determination. Pretty concerned the wish of a paralysed and dying women to commit suicide with the assistance of her husband, without him risking prosecution for helping her. EctHR, Pretty v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (29 April 2002), para. 61. Later confirmed in, among others: EctHR, Christine Goodwin v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (11 July 2002, GC), para. 90; Nikolaidis (2015), p. 58; Laferty (2014), p. 526. Suggested further reading: Marshall (2008), pp. 336–355.

251

Baghai (2012), p. 952.

252

Laferty (2014), pp. 522, 523 and 530; De Hert (2012), p. 39.

253

The rights and freedoms in the ECHR must be interpreted alongside social, technological and scientific changes. EctHR, Soering v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (7 July 1989), para. 102. EctHR, Marckx v. Belgium, Judgment (13 June 1979), para. 41. EctHR, Tyrer v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (25 April 1978), para. 31.

254

The rights and freedoms in the ECHR may not be theoretical or illusory. See, for example: EctHR, Soering v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (7 July 1989), para. 87. EctHR, Airey v. Ireland, Judgment (9 October 1979), para. 24. Suggested further reading: Mowbray (2005), pp. 57–79.

255

Laferty (2014), pp. 522 and 523; Finn et al. (2013), pp. 26, 28 and 29; De Hert (2012), p. 39.

256

De Hert (2012), p. 39.

257

For example: EctHR, S. and Marper v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (4 December 2008, GC), para. 57. EctHR, Bensaid v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (6 February 2001), para. 47.

258

EctHR, S. and Marper v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (4 December 2008, GC), para. 66. EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 96.

259

The scope of art. 17 ICCPR has also become more clear and very wide as a result of the work of the HR Committee. It mainly concerns HR Committee, General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (The Right to Privacy) (8 April 1988). See also HR Committee, General Comment No. 28: Article 3 (The equality of rights between men and women) (29 March 2000), which determines in para. 20 that women and men have an equal right to enjoy privacy. Laferty (2014), pp. 522 and 523. Suggested further reading: Rainey et al. (2014), pp. 366–410; Joseph and Castan (2013), pp. 554–558; Nowak (2005), pp. 386–391 and 403.

260

Finn et al. (2013), pp. 6, 26, 28 and 29.

261

Privacy of personal communication and privacy of personal data are jointly referred to as information privacy. In 2013, Finn et al. proposed an alteration and expansion of Clarke’s categories to seven categories of privacy by replacing privacy of personal data with privacy of data and image, privacy of thoughts and feelings, privacy of location and space and privacy of association. Clarke (2013); Finn et al. (2013), pp. 6 and 7.

262

See Sect. 2.5.3 on the inclusion of personal data protection in the right to privacy and Sect. 2.6 on the notion of personal data protection. See also Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.6) on the protection of personal data through the right to private life when discussing the key rules governing ethnic data collection.

263

Joseph and Castan (2013), pp. 560; Nowak (2005), p. 388; Gutwirth (2002), p. 84.

264

Gutwirth (2002), p. 85.

265

Fried (1968), p. 483. See also: Solove (2008), pp. 24–29.

266

See, for instance: Bezanson (1992, p. 1135): “a concept of privacy based on the individual’s control of information rather than on generalized social controls on information”. Miller (1971, p. 25): “Of late, however, lawyers and social scientists have been reaching the conclusion that the basic attribute of an effective right of privacy is the individual’s ability to control the circulation of information relating to him”. Breckenridge (1970, p. 1): “Privacy (…) is also the individual’s right to control dissemination of information about himself”. Westin (1967, p. 5): “Privacy is the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others”.

267

HR Committee, General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (The Right to Privacy) (8 April 1988), para. 10.

268

The EctHR ruled for the first time in Malone v. the United Kingdom (1984) that the monitoring and storing of information through telephone communication violate art. 8 ECHR because it was done without the consent of the data subject. In Leander v. Sweden (1987), the EctHR confirmed that the mere storage of personal information by the police interferes with the right to respect for private life in art. 8 ECHR. See: EctHR, Malone v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (2 August 1984), para. 84. EctHR, Leander v. Sweden, Judgment (26 March 1987), para. 48.

269

EctHR, Z v. Finland, Judgment (25 February 1997), para. 71.

270

EctHR, S. and Marper v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (4 December 2008, GC), para. 66.

271

The living instrument doctrine of the ECHR was briefly discussed in Sect. 2.5.2. González Fuster (2014), pp. 94 and 95; Laferty (2014), pp. 530 and 559.

272

EcmHR, Yvonne Chave née Julien v. France, Decision (9 July 1991).

273

Telephone calls, emails, and Internet usage at work also fall under private life, as does the monitoring thereof when no warning of liability to monitoring was made because failure to do so creates reasonable expectation that such communication qualify under the protection of private life. EctHR, Copland v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (3 April 2007), paras. 41 and 42.

274

Even though the GPS receiver in the case was attached to a car, the authorities demonstrated a clear intent to systematically collect and store data on the applicant by surveilling Uzun for several months. EctHR, Uzun v. Germany, Judgment (2 September 2010), paras. 49 to 53. For a discussion of the case, see: De Hert and Van Caeneghem (2010), pp. 1448–1460.

275

See Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.6) on the protection of personal data through the right to private life.

276

See Sect. 2.5.2 on privacy as relative and contextual self-determination. Gutwirth (2002), p. 83.

277

HR Committee, General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (The Right to Privacy) (8 April 1988), paras. 4 and 8.

278

HR Committee, General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (The Right to Privacy) (8 April 1988), paras. 7 and 8. The importance of a case-to-case approach to exceptions to the prohibition of interferences with personal data protection within the framework of the EctHR case law will be considered in Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.6.1).

279

Laferty (2014), p. 560; Nowak (2005), pp. 382 and 383.

280

Joseph and Castan (2013), pp. 536.

281

HR Committee, Rafael Armando Rojas García v. Colombia, Views (3 April 2001), para. 10.3.

282

HR Committee, General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (The Right to Privacy) (8 April 1988), para. 4. HR Committee, Toonen v. Australia, Views (31 March 1994), para. 8.3.

283

Limitations to the right to respect for private life in art. 7 CFEU must adhere to the same requirements as the ones described in art. 8.2 ECHR.

284

De Hert (2012), p. 40; Nardell (2010), p. 46.

285

See, in particular, Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.6.1) on the legality, necessity and legitimacy of personal data protection interferences. Proportionality will also be considered in Chap. 6 as a normative element of positive action (Sect. 6.1.2.2), in Chaps. 7 and 8 when reviewing the international and the European framework on positive action, in Chap. 9 on soft and strong positive action measures for Roma (Sect. 9.1.3), and in Chap. 10 (Sect. 10.1) on positive action for Roma in four key areas.

286

The case concerned the freedom of expression, more specifically the freedom of the press to inform the public and the right of the public to be properly informed about matters of undisputed public concern, following an injunction prohibiting The Sunday Times from publishing an article on the out-of-court settlement negotiations for children born with severe deformities following pregnant women’s use of the drug thalidomide. EctHR, The Sunday Times v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (26 April 1979), para. 49. This was confirmed in EctHR, Goodwin v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 March 1996, GC), para. 31.

287

EctHR, S. and Marper v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (4 December 2008, GC), para. 99. This judgment will be discussed in-depth in Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.6.1) when discussing the legality, necessity and legitimacy principles interferences with personal data protection must fulfil.

288

Nardell (2010), p. 46.

289

EctHR, Norris v. Ireland, Judgment (26 October 1988), para. 41. This was confirmed in later case law. See, for instance: EctHR, Smith and Grady v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 September 1999), para. 87. EctHR, Dudgeon v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (22 October 1981), para. 53.

290

EctHR, Connors v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 May 2004), para. 50. EctHR, Smith and Grady v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 September 1999), para. 88. EctHR, Gillow v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (24 November 1986), para. 55. EctHR, Dudgeon v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (22 October 1981), para. 54. EctHR, Handyside v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (7 December 1976), paras. 50 to 59.

291

De Hert (2012), pp. 43 and 44. Suggested further reading: De Hert (2012), pp. 45–74.

292

EctHR, Connors v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 May 2004), paras. 82 to 84, 86, 93 and 94. EctHR, Handyside v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (7 December 1976), paras. 47 and 48.

293

EctHR, Hatton and others v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (8 July 2003, GC), paras. 103 and 123.

294

States’ margin of appreciation is narrower when it concerns an interference with a right that is crucial for individuals to effectively enjoy their key rights, and wider when it concerns the application of social or economic policies. EctHR, Connors v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 May 2004), para. 82. See also: EctHR, Gillow v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (24 November 1986), para. 55. EctHR, Dudgeon v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (22 October 1981), para. 52.

295

De Hert (2012), p. 40 (ref. 14).

296

This will be considered in Chap. 3 (Sects. 3.5.1 and 3.5.2) on the rules and principles governing sensitive data collection.

297

Joseph and Castan (2013), p. 541; FRA and CoE (2014), p. 15; Nowak (2005), p. 379. See also Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.6.2) on States’ positive obligations regarding the protection of personal data through the right to private life.

298

Joseph and Castan (2013), p. 541.

299

HR Committee, General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (The Right to Privacy) (8 April 1988), para. 1.

300

HR Committee, General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (The Right to Privacy) (8 April 1988), para. 6; Joseph and Castan (2013), p. 541.

301

See, for example: EctHR, I v. Finland, Judgment (17 July 2008), para. 36. EctHR, K.U. v. Finland, Judgment (2 December 2008), para. 42. EctHR, X and Y v. the Netherlands, Judgment (26 March 1985), para. 23. EctHR, Airey v. Ireland, Judgment (9 October 1979), para. 32. EctHR, Marckx v. Belgium, Judgment (13 June 1979), para. 31.

302

The case concerned the inability of a father to lodge a criminal complaint on behalf of his 16 year old daughter with mental disabilities who was raped, due to a procedural gap in Dutch law. The latter left the daughter without practical and effective protection, thereby violating art. 8 ECHR. EctHR, X and Y v. the Netherlands, Judgment (26 March 1985), para. 23. This was confirmed in EctHR, I v. Finland, Judgment (17 July 2008), para. 36.

303

Laferty (2014), pp. 524 and 533; Nowak (2005), p. 380.

304

Nowak (2005), p. 380. Part II of the book focuses on positive action.

305

EctHR, Airey v. Ireland, Judgment (9 October 1979), para. 32.

306

Especially with regards to positive obligations, such a wide margin of appreciation follows from the vagueness of the notion respect. This resulted into diverse practices and thus considerable differences in requirements to ensure effective respect for private life from case to case. The case concerned the application of stricter immigration rules to husbands compared to wives wanting to join or remain with their lawfully and permanently settled spouses in the UK. The distinction between non-nationals based on sex was put in place to protect the British labour market. The EctHR found the different rules to be in violation of art. 14 ECHR in conjunction with art. 8 ECHR. EctHR, Abdulaziz, Cabales and Balkandali v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (28 May 1985), para. 67. This was confirmed in later cases, such as: EctHR, A, B and C v. Ireland, Judgment (16 December 2010, GC), para. 248. EctHR, Johnston and Others v. Ireland, Judgment (18 December 1986), para. 55(c).

307

See Sect. 2.5.4 on the conditions that interferences with privacy must fulfil.

308

See, for example: EctHR, Rees v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (25 September 1986), para. 37; Rainey et al. (2014), p. 365; Nowak (2005), p. 380.

309

The EctHR added that the legitimate aims mentioned in art. 8.2 ECHR could be relevant in striking the balance, while recalling that this paragraph actually refers to interferences and thus to negative obligations. EctHR, Rees v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (25 September 1986), para. 37. The EctHR repeated this in: EctHR, Hatton and others v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (8 July 2003, GC), paras. 70 and 98.

310

The EctHR found that “(t)he mere refusal to alter the register of births or to issue birth certificates whose contents and nature differ from those of the birth register cannot be considered as interferences”. EctHR, Rees v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (25 September 1986), paras. 35 and 42.

311

The EctHR took into consideration the fact that the UK government had payed for the Rees’ medical treatment. It also underlined that is was aware “of the seriousness of the problems affecting transsexuals and of their distress” and advised the UK government to keep “the need for appropriate measures under review, having regard particularly to scientific and societal developments”. EctHR, Rees v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (25 September 1986), paras. 45 to 47.

312

Laferty (2014), p. 590.

313

EctHR, Evans v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (10 April 2007, GC), para. 75. EctHR, Dickson v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (4 December 2007, GC), paras. 70 and 71. EctHR, Hatton and others v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (8 July 2003, GC), paras. 70 and 98. EctHR, Odièvre v. France, Judgment (13 February 2003), para. 40.

314

See Sect. 2.5.1 on the interrelatedness of privacy and personal data protection.

315

See Sect. 2.5 on the right to privacy. This right will be further analysed in Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.6) when considering the core rules governing ethnic data collection.

316

Negrin (2003).

317

Gellert et al. (2013), p. 75.

318

Resolution (73)22 of the Committee of Ministers on data protection of the privacy of individuals vis-à-vis electronic data banks in the private sector (26 September 1973). Resolution (74)29 of the Committee of Ministers on data protection of the privacy of individuals vis-à-vis electronic data banks in the public sector (20 September 1974).

319

OECD, Guidelines Governing the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flow of Personal Data (23 September 1980) as revised on 11 July 2013.

320

Kirby (2011), pp. 10–12.

321

See Sect. 2.6.2 for an introduction to personal data protection at the CoE, and Sect. 2.6.3 for the EU.

322

Gutwirth (2002), p. 87.

323

See Chap. 3 (Sects. 3.4 and 3.5) on the key rules and principles governing ethnic data collection. Gutwirth (2002), p. 87.

324

See Sect. 2.5.1 on the interrelatedness and complementarity of privacy and personal data protection.

325

Free flow of information is enshrined in various instruments, including: ICCPR, art. 19.2. ECHR, art. 10. GDPR, art. 1. Convention 108, arts. 1 and 12. Explanatory Report to the Convention 108 (28 January 1981), para. 19. OECD, Guidelines Governing the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flow of Personal Data (23 September 1980) as revised on 11 July 2013. González Fuster (2014), p. 130.

326

As of 9 May 2019, Convention 108 is in force in 54 countries. For an up-to-date overview of ratifications and signatures, see: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/108/signatures (Accessed 9 May 2019).

327

Explanatory Report to Convention 108 (28 January 1981), paras. 2 and 3.

328

Explanatory Report to Convention 108 (28 January 1981), para. 20; Waltzer (2011), p. 82.

329

States must also adopt appropriate sanctions and remedies for violations of these national measures. Convention 108, arts. 4.1 and 10. Explanatory Report to Convention 108 (28 January 1981), paras. 39 and 60.

330

Meija (2011), p. 14.

331

Convention 108, art. 3.1.

332

Polakiewicz (2011), pp. 42 and 43.

333

Polakiewicz (2011), pp. 42 and 43; Waltzer (2011), p. 82.

334

As of 1 June 2019, Convention 108 applies in seven non-Members of the Council of Europe. It concerns Argentina, Cabo Verde, Mauritius, Mexico, Senegal, Tunisia and Uruguay. For an up-to-date overview of ratifications and signatures, see: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/108/signatures (Accessed 9 May 2019). FRA and CoE (2014), p. 17.

335

Polakiewicz (2011), pp. 42, 43 and 45; Waltzer (2011), p. 82.

336

Recommendation CM/Rec(97)5 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the protection of medical data (13 February 1997).

337

Recommendation CM/Rec(87)15 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States Regulating the Use of Personal Data in the Police Sector (17 September 1987).

338

Recommendation CM/Rec(2010)13 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the protection of individuals with regard to automatic processing of personal data in the context of profiling (23 November 2010), preamble.

339

Recommendation CM/Rec(97)5 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the protection of medical data (13 February 1997).

340

Recommendation CM/Rec(89)2 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the protection of personal data used for employment purposes (19 January 1989).

341

Recommendation CM/Rec(83)10 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the protection of personal data used for scientific research and statistics (23 September 1983).

342

Explanatory Memorandum of Recommendation No.R(97)18 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States concerning the Protection of Personal Data Collected and Processed for Statistical Purposes (30 September 1997), para. 3; Polakiewicz (2011), pp. 42 and 43.

343

344

Section 2.6.2.1 briefly discussed recommendations and their role in the CoE data protection framework.

345

Kierkegaard et al. (2011), pp. 223 and 224; Polakiewicz (2011), p. 43.

346

FRA and CoE (2014), p. 17; Polakiewicz (2011), pp. 43 and 44.

347

FRA and CoE (2014), p. 17; Polakiewicz (2011), pp. 43 and 44. The role of supervisory authorities will be considered in Sect. 2.6.5.

348

Kierkegaard et al. (2011), p. 224.

349

Kierkegaard et al. (2011), p. 224; Waltzer (2011), p. 83.

350

Propositions of Modernisation by the Consultative Committee of the Convention for Convention 108 (18 December 2012).

351

Protocol amending the Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data (10 October 2018).

352

As of 9 May 2019, 27 States had signed but not yet ratified the Protocol amending Convention 108. For an up-to-date overview of ratifications and signatures, see: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/223/signatures (Accessed 9 May 2019).

353

Council of Europe (2018).

354

See Chap. 3 (Sects. 3.3–3.5) on the key data protection rules and principles that apply to ethnic data collection practices.

355

Explanatory Report to Convention 108 (28 January 1981), para. 1.

356

Modernisation of Convention 108: new proposals by the Consultative Committee of Convention 108 (27 April 2012), p. 3. See Sect. 2.6.6 on the inclusion of an autonomous right to personal data protection in EU law. See also Sects. 2.5.2 and 2.5.3, which expanded on the inclusion of personal data protection in the right to privacy through the case of law of the EctHR.

357

Final document on the modernisation of Convention 108 by the Consultative Committee of Convention 108 (15 June 2012), p. 86.

358

The proposed modernised Convention 108 stipulated that the purpose of the Convention “is to secure for every individual (…) the protection of their personal data”. The proposed explanatory report stated that the right to such protection has acquired a specific meaning in the case law of the EctHR on the right to respect for private and family life in art. 8 ECHR and that it is enshrined as a fundamental right in art. 8 CFEU, while at the same time emphasising that “the right to the protection of personal data is not an isolated right but an enabling one without which other rights and fundamental freedoms – such as the right to privacy, freedom of expression, freedom of association, freedom of movement and the right to a fair trial – could not be exercised and enjoyed in the same manner”. See: Propositions of Modernisation by the Consultative Committee of the Convention for Convention 108 (18 December 2012), art. 1. Draft Explanatory Report of the Modernised Version of Convention 108 by the Consultative Committee of Convention 108 (25 June 2015), para. 12.

359

The introduction of a separate right to data protection in EU law by the Treaty of Lisbon will be addressed in Sect. 2.6.6.

360

Protocol amending Convention 108, art. 2. Convention 108+, art. 1.

361

Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (24 October 1995) (Directive 95). Later Directives provide more detailed provisions on data protection in areas that were also covered by Directive 95 to balance other legitimate interests. See, for example: Directive 2006/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the retention of data generated or processed in connection with the provision of publicly available electronic communication services or of public communications networks and amending Directive 2002/58/EC (15 March 2006). Directive 2002/58/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector (12 July 2002).

362

Directive 95, recitals 2 and 4 and art. 1.

363

Directive 95, recitals 7 to 9.

364

Directive 95, recitals 10 and 23 and arts. 4.1 and 22 to 24. See also: Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), Asociación Nacional de Establecimientos Financieros de Crédito (ASNEF) and Federación de Comercio Electrónico y Marketing Directo (FECEMD) v. Administración del Estado, Judgment (24 November 2011), para. 35; Reding (2012), pp. 120 and 121.

365

Directive 95, recital 5.

366

Directive 95, recital 23.

367

Chapter 3 (Sects. 3.3–3.7) considers the key data protection rules and principles.

368

Directive 95, recital 11.

369

Directive 95, recital 27 and art. 3.1. De Schutter (2007), p. 858. Contrary to Convention 108, Convention 108+ covers both automated and non-automated processing of personal data. Protocol amending Convention 108. See Convention 108+, arts. 2(b) and art. 2(c).

370

Convention 108, art. 2(c). Explanatory Report to Convention 108 (28 January 1981), para. 31. During the reform process of Convention 108, the Committee of Ministers not only added the collection, but also the preservation, disclosure, making available and destruction of personal data to the definition of data processing in Convention 108+. Protocol amending Convention 108, art. 3(2). Convention 108+, art. 2(b). Kierkegaard et al. (2011), p. 225.

371

Furthermore, art. 2(b) Directive 95 also covered the “organisation, storage, adaptation or alteration, retrieval, consultation, use, disclosure by transmission, dissemination or otherwise making available, alignment or combination, blocking, erasure or destruction” of personal data. In the GDPR’s definition of ‘processing’ in art. 4(2), the recording and restructuring of personal data were added to that list, while blocking was replaced by restriction.

372

Convention 108 leaves the option open for application to bodies with legal personality in art. 3.2(b). González Fuster (2014), p. 136.

373

Directive 95, recital 16 and art. 3.2.

374

Council Framework Decision 2008/877/JHA on the protection of personal data processed in the framework of police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters (27 November 2008).

375

Directive 95, art. 3.2.

376

Convention 108+, art. 3(2).

377

One way of doing so is by strengthening the powers and independency of DPAs. See arts. 51 to 59 GDPR, which replaced art. 28 Directive 95. Commission Communication, Safeguarding Privacy in a Connected World – A European Data Protection Framework for the 21st Century (25 January 2012), p. 8.

378

National data protection legislation included significantly different substantive and procedural rules across Member States. Commission Communication, Europe 2020: A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth (3 March 2010), pp. 3 and 4; Commission Communication, Safeguarding Privacy in a Connected World – A European Data Protection Framework for the 21st Century (25 January 2012), p. 8; Alidadi (2017), p. 21.

379

Council Conclusions on the Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council – A comprehensive approach on personal data protection in the European Union (Council Conclusions) (24–25 February 2011), recital 10–11; Commission Communication, Safeguarding Privacy in a Connected World – A European Data Protection Framework for the 21st Century (25 January 2012), pp. 3 and 4; Commission Communication, Europe 2020: A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth (3 March 2010), pp. 3 and 4; De Hert and Papakonstantinou (2012b), p. 132; Hustinx (2011), p. 17; Reding (2012), p. 121.

380

Commission Communication, Safeguarding Privacy in a Connected World – A European Data Protection Framework for the 21st Century (25 January 2012), pp. 2, 3 and 7; Council Conclusions (24–25 February 2011), recital 12; Hustinx (2011), p. 18.

381

Commission Communication, Safeguarding Privacy in a Connected World – A European Data Protection Framework for the 21st Century (25 January 2012), p. 4.

382

Art. 16 TFEU replaced art. 286 Treaty establishing the European Community (Nice Consolidated version) (21 February 2001) (TEC). Art. 16.2 TFEU does not mention a specific type of legal instrument, so it may be a Regulation, Directive or Decision (art. 289.1 TFEU). Commission Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (25 January 2012), p. 5. Council Conclusions (24–25 February 2011), art. 3. Reding (2012), p. 120.

383

De Hert and Papakonstantinou (2012b), p. 131. See also Sect. 2.6.6 on the inclusion of an autonomous right to personal data protection in the CFEU.

384

Prior to Lisbon, there were three different legal bases for personal data processing: former art. 286 TEC (European Community institutions and bodies), former art. 95 TEC (former first pillar) and former arts. 30.1(b) and 34.2(b) TEC (former third pillar). As a result, three different instruments were adopted: Regulation 45/2001/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data by the Community institutions and bodies and on the free movement of such data (18 December 2000), Directive 95 and Council Framework Decision 2008/877/JHA on the protection of personal data processed in the framework of police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters (27 November 2008). Reding (2012), p. 120.

385

Commission Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (25 January 2012). Commission Communication, Safeguarding Privacy in a Connected World – A European Data Protection Framework for the 21st Century (25 January 2012), p. 4.

386

Commission Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data by competent authorities for the purposes of prevention, investigation, detection or prosecution of criminal offences or the execution of criminal penalties, and the free movement of such data (25 January 2012). Commission Communication, Safeguarding Privacy in a Connected World – A European Data Protection Framework for the 21st Century (25 January 2012), p. 4.

387

FRA and CoE (2014), pp. 21 and 22.

388

Commission Communication, Safeguarding Privacy in a Connected World – A European Data Protection Framework for the 21st Century (25 January 2012), p. 8.

389

Commission Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (25 January 2012), pp. 5 and 6. Reding points out that the Regulation would still leave some room for Member States to adopt national legislation. This could, for example, be the case to specify the application of certain Regulation elements or to enact supplementary legislation or specific rules. Reding (2012), pp. 121 and 122.

390

Reding (2012), p. 122. See also the Declaration on the protection of personal data in the fields of judicial cooperation in criminal matters and police cooperation (13 December 2007) that acknowledges that specific nature of the fields judicial co-operation in criminal matters and police co-operation.

391

For instance, hearsay and profiling may play a role in police investigations, personal data may need to be stored long-term, different rights to information and right to access to police files containing personal information. De Hert and Papakonstantinou (2012a), p. 2.

392

De Hert and Papakonstantinou (2012a), p. 2.

393

De Hert and Papakonstantinou (2012b), p. 132.

394

Gutwirth et al. (2013), pp. v and vi; De Hert and Papakonstantinou (2012b), pp. 130 and 131.

395

The GDPR entered into force on 24 May 2016 and has applied directly in all Member States since 25 May 2018.

396

The Police and Criminal Justice Authorities Directive entered into force on 6 May 2016 and the Member States had until 6 May 2018 to transpose it into national legislation. Directive 2016/680 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data by competent authorities for the purposes of the prevention, investigation, detection or prosecution of criminal offences of the execution of criminal penalties, and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA (27 April 2016).

397

See Chap. 3 (Sects. 3.3–3.5) on the key data protection rules and principles.

398

Section 2.6.2 on personal data protection at the Council of Europe level and Sect. 2.6.3 on personal data protection at the European Union level.

399

Convention 108, art. 2(a). Convention 108+, art. 2(a). This legal instrument primarily protects natural persons, but allows States to extend protection to legal persons in their domestic legislation.

400

GDPR, art. 4.1. Legal persons are not protected by the GDPR.

401

This includes names and photographs as well as fingerprints and genetic material such as DNA profiles. EctHR, S. and Marper v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (4 December 2008, GC), para. 68. Explanatory Report to Convention 108 (28 January 1981), para. 28.

402

This must be “assessed on a case-by-case basis” and “technological and other developments may change what constitutes ‘unreasonable’ time, effort or other means”. Explanatory Report to the Protocol amending the Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data (10 October 2018) (Explanatory Report Protocol amending Convention 108), para. 17.

403

Explanatory Report Protocol amending Convention 108 (10 October 2018), para. 17. GDPR, art. 4.1. Recital 26 GDPR indicates that “account should be taken of all the means likely reasonably likely to be used”, including costs and time, available technology and technological development, to determine whether or not a person is (in)directly identifiable.

404

This includes most forms of discrimination testing and anonymous workplace monitoring. These practices will be considered when reviewing the data sources of ethnic data collection in Chap. 4 (Sects. 4.3.2 and 4.3.3). The anonymisation of personal data will be discussed in Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.4.7) on the storage limitation rule in the European data protection framework. See: Convention 108(+), arts. 1 and 2(a). Explanatory Report Protocol amending Convention 108 (10 October 2018), paras. 17 to 19. GDPR, recital 26. Opinion 4/2007 of Article 29 Data Protection Working Party on the Concept of Personal Data (20 June 2007), p. 21.

405

See, for instance, censuses and population registers. Aggregate data are not interested in individuals, but they are always based on personal micro-data. Makkonen (2010), p. 228; Makkonen (2006), p. 14; Simon (2007), pp. 12 and 14; Ringelheim (2006/7), pp. 58 and 59.

406

Explanatory Report Protocol amending Convention 108 (10 October 2018), para. 18. GDPR, art. 4.1. Recital 30 GDPR explains that the latter may refer to “internet protocol addresses, cookie identifiers and other identifiers such as radio frequency identification tags”. The reform process of the EU data protection framework was considered in Sect. 2.6.3.2.

407

FRA and CoE (2014), p. 43; Gutwirth (2002), p. 96.

408

Id.

409

During the negotiations process to review Directive 95, De Hert and Papakonstantinou (2012b, p. 133) pointed out that the retention of the distinction between personal and sensitive data is a cause of concern, because it overlooks the fact that sensitive data may also be inferred from normal personal data processing by using new, intensive data-processing techniques. Nevertheless, the newly adopted GDPR maintains the distinction, as does Convention 108+. See: GDPR, section 3. Convention 108 (+), art. 6. The core data protection rules will be discussed in Chap. 3 (Sects. 3.3– 3.5).

410

Convention 108(+), art. 6. GDPR, art. 9.1. Suggested further reading on the notions personal and sensitive data as included in European data protection law, see: FRA and CoE (2018a), pp. 83–97.

411

CFEU, art. 8.3. TFEU, art. 16.2.

412

Polakiewicz (2011), pp. 42 and 43.

413

Polakiewicz (2011), pp. 42 and 43. See Sect. 2.6.1 for more on recommendations adopted by the Committee of Ministers.

414

Convention 108+, art. 23.

415

Article 29 Working Party included representatives of the data protection authorities (DPAs) of the Member States and the Community institutions as well as a representative of the European Commission. Directive 95, art. 29.

416

The European Commission’s proposal to replace the Article 29 Working Party with an independent European Data Protection Board in order “to improve its contribution to consistent application of data protection law and to provide a strong basis for cooperation among data protection authorities, including the European Data Protection Supervisor; and to enhance synergies and effectiveness by foreseeing that the secretariat of the European Data Protection Board will be provided by the European Data Protection Supervisor” was included in the arts. 69 to 76 GDPR (see art. 70 for the tasks of this independent Board). Commission Communication, Safeguarding Privacy in a Connected World – A European Data Protection Framework for the 21st Century (25 January 2012), pp. 8 and 9; De Hert and Papakonstantinou (2012b), p. 141.

417

De Hert and Papakonstantinou (2012b), p. 141.

418

GDPR, art. 68. In May 2018, the EDPB endorsed the GDPR-related guidelines of Article 29 Working Party.

419

This includes objections by supervisory authorities in ‘one-stop-shop’ cross-border cases (see Sect. 2.6.5.2 for more on this), conflicting views on the ‘lead’ between different supervisory authorities, and failure of a supervisory authorities to request or follow the EDPB’s opinion. GDPR, arts. 65, 68, 69 and 70.

420

GDPR, art. 70.

421

These bodies may also send their respective respresentatives. The European Commission may participate in the EDPB’s activities and meetings, but does not have voting rights. GDPR, arts. 68.3 and 68.5.

422

See Sect. 2.6.5.1 on the role of supervisory bodies at CoE and EU level.

423

FRA and CoE (2018a, b), pp. 189–197; FRA and CoE (2014), p. 18.

424

Directive 95, recital 62.

425

Directive 95, art. 28. Similarly, art. 7.3 CFEU determines that independent authorities are responsible to ensure compliance with the key data protection principles enumerated in art. 7.2 CFEU.

426

Additional Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data, regarding supervisory authorities and transborder data flows (8 November 2001), which entered into force in 2004. Convention 108 does not contain an explicit provision on independent supervisory authorities. It does, however, stipulate in art. 11 that State Parties have the possibility of granting “data subjects a wider measure of protection than that stipulated in this Convention”. Kierkegaard et al. (2011), p. 229.

427

Gellert et al. (2013), pp. 72 and 73.

428

Directive 95, art. 28. Gellert et al. (2013), pp. 72 and 73.

429

Directive 95, art. 28.6.

430

Convention 108+ adds the need for complete impartiality, while the GDPR states that the DPAs must remain free from external influence. Complete independence can be safeguarded by means of various elements, including by ensuring that DPAs can choose their own staff and use separate annual budgets. Convention 108+, arts. 15.5 and 15.6. Explanatory Report Protocol amending Convention 108 (10 October 2018), para. 129. GDPR, art. 52.1. Suggested further reading on the notion complete independence: FRA and CoE (2018a, b), pp. 191–194.

431

Convention 108+, art. 15. GDPR, art. 58. FRA and CoE (2018a, b), p. 194.

432

Convention 108+, art. 15. Additional Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data, regarding supervisory authorities and transborder data flows (8 November 2001), art. 1. GDPR, art. 58.

433

This is called the ‘one-stop-shop’ mechanism. It requires the establishment of a lead supervisory authority as well as the exchange of information, mutual assistance, joint investigations and the adoption of binding decisions in order to ensure consistency. GDPR, arts. 56.1 and 60 to 62. Suggested further reading: FRA and CoE (2018a, b), pp. 195–199.

434

FRA and CoE (2018a), p. 198.

435

Convention 108+, arts. 16 and 17. GDPR, arts. 60.1 to 60.3.

436

Convention 108+, art. 17.3.

437

See Sect. 2.6.3.2 on the review of the European data protection framework.

438

The CFEU became legally binding on 1 December 2009 with the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.

439

González Fuster (2014), p. 199; Vitorino (2003), pp. 116 and 117.

440

See Sect. 2.5.3 for a review of the case law of the EctHR on the inclusion of data protection in the right to privacy life in art. 8 ECHR. See also Sect. 2.6.2.2 on the wording used in art. 1 Convention 108+ on the aim of the instrument. Note that the GDPR explicitly refers to natural person’s right to the protection of personal data as a fundamental right and to art. 16.1 TFEU. GDPR, recital 1 and art. 1.2.

441

Some national constitutions recognise the right to personal data protection per se, whereas others conceive it as derivate of the right to privacy. See, for instance, Sect. 2.6.2.2 in which the German government’s point of view regarding the proposed inclusion of an explicit reference to the right to personal data protection in Convention 108+ was addressed. González Fuster (2014), p. 199.

442

FRA, Opinion 2/2012 on the proposed data protection reform package, 1 October 2012, para. 25. Article 7 CFEU was previously mentioned in Sect. 2.5.2 on privacy as a relative and contextual notion that focuses on individual self-determination.

443

Some consider the right to data protection in art. 8 CFEU as a human right separate and complementary to privacy in art. 7 CFEU. See: Büllesbach et al. (2010), p. 2. Others argue that art. 8 CFEU merely develops art. 7 CFEU regarding the field of personal data processing. See: European Union Network of Independent Experts in Fundamental Rights (2006), p. 90. Suggested further reading: González Fuster (2014), pp. 198–205.

444

CFEU, art. 51. FRA and CoE (2014), p. 21.

445

Gellert et al. (2013), pp. 63 and 64.

446

See, for example: CJEU, Volker und Markus Schecke GbR and Hartmut Eifert v. Land Hessen, Judgment (9 November 2010, GC), para. 48. CJEU, Eugen Schmidberger, Internationale Transporte und Planzüge v. Republik Osterreich, Judgment (12 June 2003), para. 80. The conditions that interferences with the right to private life in art. 8 ECHR must fulfil, were analysed in Sect. 2.5.4.

447

These rights are included in arts. 11, 42 and 13 CFEU respectively. Council Conclusions (24–25 February 2011), recital 8. FRA (2012), para. 26.

448

Art. 52.3 CFEU stipulates that in so far CFEU rights correspond with ECHR rights, their meaning and scope “shall be the same as those laid down by the said Convention”, but that this shall not prevent EU law to provide more extensive protection. This article does apply to art. 8 CFEU, because the ECHR does not contain a corresponding article stipulating the right to the protection of personal data. The requirements that limitations to the right to personal data protection must adhere to, correspond to the legality, necessity and legitimacy principles that apply to interferences with privacy, as discussed in Sect. 2.5.4. González Fuster (2014), p. 203.

449

The scope of application of Convention 108 and Directive 95 was discussed previously (Sects. 2.6.1–2.6.4). González Fuster (2014), p. 204.

450

CFEU, art. 8.2. These general data protection rules will be analysed in Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.4).

451

Id.

452

González Fuster (2014), p. 205; Ruiz (2003), p. 39. See Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.4) for an overview of the general data protection rules.

453

See Chap. 3 (Sects. 3.4 and 3.5).

454

See Chap. 1 on the particular vulnerability of Roma in Europe (Sect. 1.2.1) and on intersectional discrimination (Sect. 1.2.3). Eide (2013), p. 54.

455

Recommendation CM/Rec(2008)5 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on policies for Roma and/or Travellers in Europe (20 February 2008); Maastricht Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights by the International Commission of Jurists (Maastricht Guidelines) (26 January 1997), paras. 1 to 3; O’Connell (2012), pp. 5, 6, 31 and 32; Van Bueren (2002), p. 457; Eide and Rosas (2001), p. 5.

456

Scott (1999), pp. 633 and 634.

457

Not all human rights instruments make such a textual division. Later documents, such as the CEDAW and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (20 November 1989) (CRC) include both categories of rights.

458

Set within the framework of the Cold War, West-Europe and North-America focused on civil and political rights, whereas Soviet and developing countries emphasised on socio-economic rights. The distinction between different types of rights is sometimes done by way of generations of human rights, with civil and political rights as the first generation, economic, social and cultural rights as the second generation, and solidary rights such as the right to development and to self-determination as the third generation. Like Eide and Rosas, the author rejects the notion of generations because such a strict division is not supported by the national evolution of human rights. Jaroń (2012), p. 29; O’Connell (2012), p. 30; Whelan and Donnelly (2007), pp. 908–911; Eide and Rosas (2001), p. 4.

459

The most important are: Maastricht Guidelines (26 January 1997), para. 4. Limburg Principles on the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Limburg Principles) (8 January 1987), para. 3. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (25 June 1993), para. I.5.

460

Fredman (2008, p. 2) calls socio-economic rights “the Cinderella of the international human rights corpus”. Jaroń (2012), p. 29; O’Connell (2012), p. 29; Eide and Rosas (2001), pp. 3 and 4.

461

Limburg Principles (8 January 1987), principle 1. Scheinin (2001), p. 29.

462

Jaroń (2012), pp. 29 and 30; Koch (2006), pp. 408–411; Eide and Rosas (2001), p. 7.

463

The right to education is a mixed right that contains elements of both categories of rights. Eide and Eide and Rosas (2001), pp. 4 and 5. The European Social Charter only applies to nationals of other Contracting Parties who are lawfully resident or working regularly within the territory of the Contracting Party concerned. The Revised European Charter entered into force on 1 July 1999 and will progressively replace the European Social Charter. European Social Charter (18 October 1961) (ESC). Revised European Social Charter (3 May 1996) (Revised ESC).

464

O’Connell (2012, pp. 22 and 46) explains that the HR Committee uses the freestanding anti-discrimination provision in art. 26 ICCPR to extend access to socio-economic where there is no legal protection for such rights. Examples include, for example, discrimination in pension benefits between married men and married women (F. H. Zwaan-de Vries v. The Netherlands, Views (9 April 1987), paras. 12.3 to 15) and discrimination in different pension levels for retired soldiers depending on their citizenship (Ibrahima Gueye et al. v. France, Views (6 April 1989), paras. 5.2, 9.4 and 9.5). Moreover, the HR Committee considers that certain substantive rights in the ICCPR necessarily imply protection of socio-economic rights. For instance, provision of medical treatment might be needed in pre-trial detention in order to prevent a violation of the right to life under art. 6.1 ICCPR (Yekaterina Pavlovna Lantsova v. the Russian Federation, Views (26 March 2002), para. 9.2). Shelton (2014), pp. 170 and 171; Meyerson (2008), pp. 36 and 37; Henrard (2013, p. 41) states that the EctHR could do the same in the framework of the free-standing prohibition of discrimination in Protocol 12 to the ECHR.

465

The EctHR ruled that the claimant has a right to legal assistance if this is indispensable for ensuring effective access to the court. Airey, EctHR Application No. 6289/73 at para. 26. Shelton (2014, pp. 173 and 174) refers to case law where the EctHR rules that art. 8 ECHR applies when serious environmental pollution adversely affects the private and family life of a person, even if it does not necessarily endanger their health. See, among others: EctHR, Hatton and others v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (8 July 2003, GC), para. 96. EctHR, Anna Maria Guerra and Others v. Italy, Judgment (19 February 1998, GC), paras. 57 and 60.

466

Shelton (2014), p. 179.

467

Jaroń (2012), p. 29. Other authors argue that the marginalisation of the socio-economic rights affects their effective implementation. See: O’Connell (2012), pp. 1 and 2; Coomans (2006), p. 2.

468

Scheinin (2001), pp. 29–31; Craven (1995), p. 3.

469

Maastricht Guidelines (26 January 1997), para. 4. Limburg Principles (8 January 1987), para. 3.

470

See, for example: CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2 para. 1) (14 December 1990). CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13) (8 December 1999). CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 4: The Right to Adequate Housing (Art. 11 para. 1) (13 December 1991). Report on the fiftieth and fifty-first sessions of the CESCR Committee (2014), para. 59.

471

Individuals as well as groups of individuals may submit a communication to the CESCR Committee (art. 2). Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (10 December 2008).

472

The Commission on Human Rights and its successor, the Human Rights Council, appointed several special rapporteurs over the years, such as on Education or on Adequate Housing. It concerns independent, honorary experts who undertake country visits, respond to individual complaints of alleged violations, and develop constructive dialogues with relevant actors, including States and civil society, to facilitate the implementation of the rights included in their mandate. They are part of the Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council.

473

These interpretations are not legally binding but have a strong authoritative character. Scheinin (2001), p. 30; Shelton (2014), pp. 170 and 171; O’Flaherty (2006), pp. 32–37.

474

ICESCR, art. 2.2. CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2 para. 1) (14 December 1990), paras. 1 and 2. Limburg Principles (8 January 1987), paras. 8, 22 and 35–41.

475

CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2 para. 1) (14 December 1990), paras. 3 to 7; Limburg Principles (8 January 1987), paras. 17 and 18.

476

O’Connell (2012), pp. 10 and 11; Eide and Rosas (2001), pp. 5 and 6.

477

States must ensure a minimum of essential levels of each right, promptly remove barriers inhibiting full enjoyment and may not deliberately take retrogressive steps without justifying them fully within the framework of the totality of CESCR rights and the maximum available resources. Scarce resources does not relieve States of these minimum obligations. CESCR Committee, CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2 para. 1) (14 December 1990), paras. 9 and 10; Limburg Principles (8 January 1987), paras. 8, 12, 16 to 34 and 70 to 73; Maastricht Guidelines (26 January 1997), paras. 691 to 701; Shelton (2014), pp. 171 and 172.

478

Jaroń (2012), p. 29; Eide and Rosas (2001), p. 5.

479

For instance, a prohibition of unlawful evictions is part of the right to housing: CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 4: The Right to Adequate Housing (Art. 11 para. 1) (13 December 1991), para. 8(a). Fredman (2008), p. 68.

480

Socio-economic rights may also imply negative obligations, such as the prohibition of unlawful evictions to realize the right to housing. Fredman (2008), p. 68.

481

The obligation to fulfil includes an obligation to facilitate and one to provide. Maastricht Guidelines (26 January 1997), paras. 6 and 7; Fredman (2008), pp. 67–69; Eide (2001b), p. 23.

482

These socio-economic rights make up the focus of Sects. 2.7.2–2.7.5.

483

Jaroń (2012), p. 29.

484

O’Connell (2012), pp. 4 and 5; Erasmus (2004), p. 243.

485

CERD Committee, Concluding Observations on Italy (7 April 1999), para. 11. Sigona (2005), p. 745.

486

See, for example: High Level Advisory Group of Experts on the Social Integration of Ethnic Minorities and their Full Participation in the Labour Market (2007), pp. 7, 19, 47 and 48. Farkas (2007), pp. 10, 18 and 46.

487

See Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.1) on the particular vulnerability of Roma. EctHR, Oršuš and Others v. Croatia, Judgment (16 March 2010, GC). EctHR, Sampanis and Others v. Greece, Judgment (5 June 2008). EctHR, D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic, Judgment (13 November 2007). HR Committee, Concluding Observations on the Czech Republic (22 August 2013), para. 10. CERD Committee, Concluding Observations on the Czech Republic (14 September 2011a), para. 12. Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC Committee), Concluding Observations on the Czech Republic (17 June 2011b), paras. 30, 61 and 65. CRC Committee, Concluding Observations on Bulgaria (23 June 2008), para. 56. CERD Committee, General Recommendation No. 27: Discrimination against Roma (16 August 2000), para. 18.

488

CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13) (8 December 1999), para. 1; O’Nions (2007), p. 160; Nowak (2001), pp. 245–271. Suggested further reading on the right to education: Ringelheim (2013a), pp. 95–102; Beiter (2006); Nowak (1991), pp. 418–425.

489

See: UDHR, art. 26. ICESCR, arts. 13 and 14. CRC, arts. 28 and 29. Protocol 1 to the ECHR. CFEU, art. 14. RED, arts. 1 and 3. Resolution of the Council and Ministers of Education on School Provision for Gypsy and Traveller children (22 May 1989). Declaration of the European Parliament on Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (6 May 1989), art. 16.

490

Coomans calls it an empowerment right that enables individuals to claim their rights against the State and to enjoy the benefit of other rights. CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13) (8 December 1999), para. 1; Jaroń (2012), pp. 119–121; Koch (2009), pp. 149 and 150; Coomans (2002), pp. 219 and 220; Nowak (2001), pp. 245.

491

ACFC, Commentary on Education under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (2 March 2006), p. 8. ACFC, Second Opinion on Ireland (6 October 2006), para. 116. Henrard (2013), pp. 38 and 39; Jaroń (2012), pp. 120 and 121; Nowak (2001), p. 245.

492

CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13) (8 December 1999), para. 1; Jaroń (2012), pp. 119 and 120; Coomans (2002), pp. 219 and 220; Koch (2009), p. 149.

493

Jaroń (2012), p. 121.

494

Nowak (2001), p. 251.

495

See also: UDHR, art. 26.2. CRC, art. 29.1(a), (b) and (d). UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (14 December 1960), art. 5.1(a). FCNM, art. 6.1 (promotion of mutual respect and understanding and co-operation). Revised ESC, art. 17 (full development of the personality, physical and mental capacities). Nowak (2001), p. 245.

496

CRC, art. 29.1.

497

Nowak (2001), p. 246.

498

UDHR, art. 26. ICESCR, arts. 13 and 14. CRC, arts. 28 and 29. Nowak (2001), p. 255.

499

See Sect. 2.7.1 on the essential role of socio-economic rights in international human rights law.

500

FCNM, art. 12.3. UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, art. 1.1(a). CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13) (8 December 1999), para. 6.

501

Art. 14 ICESCR requires States that have not yet secured compulsory and free primary education to work out a detailed plan for its progressive implementation within a reasonable number of years. Economic, financial or other difficulties do not relieve States of this obligation. See: CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 11: Plans of Action for Primary Education (Art. 14) (10 May 1999), para. 3. See also: UDHR, art. 26.1. ICESCR, art. 13.2(a). CRC, art. 28. UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, art. 4. Revised ESC, art. 17.2 (free primary and secondary education).

502

EctHR, Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v. Denmark, Judgment (7 December 1976), para. 50.

503

UDHR, art. 26.3 (prior right of the parents to choose the kind of education their children shall receive). ICESCR, art. 13.3. UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, art. 5.1(b) and (c). Declaration of the European Parliament on Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (6 May 1989).

504

ICESCR, art. 13.4. CRC, art. 29.2. UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, art. 5.1(c). FCNM, art. 13.1.

505

FCNM, art. 13.2. The EctHR stated in the Belgian Linguistics Case (Judgment (23 July 1968), para. 3) that art. 2 Protocol 1 to the ECHR does not oblige States to establish or subsidise any type or level of education. Such restrictive interpretation renders the right to education illusionary for groups without sufficient means establish their own educational facilities. See: van Dijk et al. (2006), p. 899.

506

Minority rights protection was discussed in Sect. 2.4.

507

Art. 12.1 FCNM stipulates that States shall—where appropriate—take measures in education to promote such objectives. Ringelheim (2013a), p. 91; Thornberry (2005), pp. 396, 404 and 405; Coomans (2002), pp. 219 and 220.

508

See Sect. 2.3.3 on promoting diversity and countering assimilation through pluralism.

509

CESCR Committee General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education (Art. 13) (8 December 1999), para. 50.

510

FCNM, arts. 12.2 and 14. UNMD, arts. 4.2 and 4.3. ECRML, art. 8. CERD Committee, General Recommendation No. 27: Discrimination against Roma (16 August 2000), paras. 23 and 26. CRC Committee, Concluding Observations on Panama (6 October 2011), paras. 63(d) and (e). CESCR Committee, Concluding Observations on Hungary (16 January 2008), paras. 28 and 51. HR Committee, Concluding Observations on Austria (15 November 2007), para. 21. ACFC, Third Opinion on Estonia (1 April 2011), paras. 132 and 135. ACFC, Third Opinion on Finland (14 October 2010), para. 126. Henrard (2000), p. 191.

511

On the contrary, the EctHR ruled in the Belgian Linguistics Case that art. 2 Protocol 1 to the ECHR does not include the right to be educated in the language preferred by the parents because linguistic preferences are not included in the notion religious and philosophical convictions. EctHR, Belgian Linguistics case, Judgment (23 July 1968), para. 6. Such restrictive interpretation disregarding the cultural or linguistics preferences of minorities in education is criticised. See: Cullen (1993), pp. 171 and 172.

512

See Chap. 6 (Sect. 6.4) on the five main justifications and aims of positive action, Chap. 10 (Sect. 10.2) on positive action for Roma in education, and Chap. 11 (Sect. 11.7) on best practices of inter-cultural mediation to enhance Roma inclusion in different fields.

513

FCNM, art. 12.1. UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, art. 5.1(c). UNMD, art. 4.4.

514

Henrard (2013), p. 57; Ahmed (2011), p. 38.

515

See Sects. 2.3.1 and 2.3.2 on the notion social inclusion. Ringelheim (2013a), p. 91. Thornberry (2005), pp. 404 and 405.

516

UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, art. 1.1(b) and (c).

517

Eide (2008), p. 12; Cullen (1993), p. 144.

518

See Sect. 2.3.3 on promoting diversity and countering assimilation through pluralism. Hadden (2004), pp. 182–184.

519

UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, art. 5.1. (c). FCNM, art. 14. UNMD, arts. 4.2 and 4.3. ECRML, art. 8. The ACFC supports multilingual education. See, for example: ACFC, Third Opinion on Lithuania (28 November 2013), paras. 80, 82 and 90. ACFC, Second Opinion on Estonia (24 February 2005), paras. 117, 118 and 122. Hofmann (2008), p. 176.

520

ICERD, arts. 1.4 and 5(e)(v).

521

HR Committee, Concluding Observations on Slovakia (22 August 2003), para. 18. CRC Committee, Concluding Observations on Bulgaria (23 June 2008), para. 58(c). CRC Committee, Concluding Observations on Slovakia (10 July 2007), para. 58(c). ACFC, Third Opinion on Poland (28 November 2013), paras. 141 to 151. ACFC, Third Opinion on the Czech Republic (1 July 2011), paras. 110 to 118. ACFC, Commentary on Education under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (2 March 2006), pp. 16, 17 and 21. Henrard (2013), p. 59.

522

Multi-cultural education involves respect for the different educational needs of different cultural groups. Inter-cultural education concerns constructive interaction between different cultural groups. Commentary of the Working Group on Minorities to the United Nations Declaration on Rights of Persons belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (4 April 2005), para. 66. Ringelheim (2013a), pp. 95–102.

523

The cases are based on art. 14 ECHR in conjunction with art. 2 Protocol 1 to the ECHR. Goodwin criticises the EctHR for not using the term segregation in D.H. and Others, because it denies itself the opportunity to state “that segregation per se is indiviously evil”. The EctHR mentions segregation once in Sampanis and Others v. Greece, Judgment (5 June 2008), para. 77. Goodwin (2009a), pp. 122 and 123.

524

EctHR, D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic, Judgment (13 November 2007), paras. 184, 193 and 199 to 201 and 207.

525

Sampanis concerned Roma-only classes. The separate classes in Oršuš also had some non-Roma children.

526

EctHR, Sampanis and Others v. Greece, Judgment (5 June 2008), paras. 96 and 97.

527

The temporary placement of children in separate classes is not automatically contrary to art. 14 ECHR when effective safeguards are put in place at each stage of the implementation of the measure in order to protect members of a specific ethnic group who are disproportionately or exclusively affected by the measure. In casu, however, there was no objective test examining linguistic skills, no effectively adapted curriculum and no monitoring procedure following progress and ensuring transfer to mainstream, mixed classes. There was no automatic placement of Roma in separate classes in this case. EctHR, Oršuš and Others v. Croatia, Judgment (16 March 2010, GC), paras. 152, 155, 157, 158 to 162, 164, 165, 172 to 175, 184 and 185.

528

See Chap. 10 (Sect. 10.2) on special measures for Roma in education.

529

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) (2014).

530

Holt (2008), p. 203.

531

See, for instance: ICERD, art. 5(e)(iii). Revised ESC, art. 31. Housing is included in the right to an adequate standard of living in the following instruments: UDHR, art. 25.1. ICESCR, art. 11.1. CEDAW, art. 14.2(h). CRC, art. 27.

532

Leckie (2001), p. 149.

533

See Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.1) on the particular vulnerability of Roma in Europe today.

534

See, for example: ECSR, European Roma Rights Centre v. Italy, Decision (7 December 2005), para. 46. ECSR, European Roma Rights Centre v. Greece, Decision (8 December 2004), paras. 46 and 47. CERD Committee, Concluding Observations on the United Kingdom (1 September 2011), para. 28. CERD Committee, Concluding Observations on Slovenia (27 August 2010), para. 10. CRC Committee, Concluding Observations on Bulgaria (23 June 2008), paras. 53 and 54. CRC Committee, Concluding Observations on Slovakia (10 July 2007), para. 55. EctHR, Yordanova and others v. Bulgaria, Judgment (24 April 2012), paras. 129 to 133. ACFC, Fourth Opinion on Slovakia (3 December 2014), para. 87. ACFC, Third Opinion on the Czech Republic (1 July 2011), paras. 12, 19, 50, 53, 141 and 143. ACFC, Third Opinion on the United Kingdom (30 June 2011), paras. 92 to 94, 97 and 98.

535

See Sect. 2.7.1 on the essential role of socio-economic rights in international human rights law.

536

OHCHR (2014).

537

Final report submitted by the Special Rapporteur on housing rights on the realization of economic, social and cultural rights, Mr. Rajindar Sachar, on the right to adequate housing (12 July 1995), para. 12.

538

Leckie (2001), pp. 150, 152 and 153.

539

The notion progressive realisation was discussed in Sect. 2.7.1.

540

OHCHR (2014).

541

CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 4: The Right to Adequate Housing (Art. 11 para. 1) (13 December 1991), para. 17. Leckie (2001), p. 158.

542

Leckie (2001), p. 152.

543

The ESC did not contain such a right to housing, but included separate provisions on housing rights of families, migrant workers and the elderly. See: ESC, arts. 16 and 19.4. Additional Protocol to the ESC (5 May 1988), art. 4.

544

ECSR, European Roma Rights Centre v. Italy, Decision (7 December 2005), para. 18. Shelton (2014), pp. 176 and 177.

545

The State must provide adequate housing within a reasonable period of time. Temporary shelter is inadequate housing. ECSR, European Roma Rights Centre v. Italy, Decision (7 December 2005), para. 35.

546

See: ECSR, European Federation of National Organisations working with the Homeless (FEANTSA) v. France, Decision (5 December 2007), para. 166. ECSR, European Roma Rights Centre v. Italy, Decision (7 December 2005), para. 46. Henrard (2013), p. 60.

547

Recommendation CM/Rec(2005)04 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on improving the housing conditions of Roma and Travellers in Europe (23 February 2005), para. 3.

548

See, for example: ECSR, European Roma Rights Centre v. France, Decision (19 October 2009), paras. 40 and 41. ECSR, European Roma Rights Centre v. Greece, Decision (8 December 2004), paras. 46 and 47. CESCR Committee, Concluding Observations on the United Kingdom (22 May 2009), para. 30. Ringelheim (2013b), pp. 436 and 437.

549

ACFC, Third Opinion on the United Kingdom (30 June 2011), paras. 87 and 98. Article 5 FCNM was discussed in Sect. 2.4.3 on the right to identity and the prohibition of assimilation as interrelated building blocks of minority protection.

550

ACFC, Third Opinion on the United Kingdom (30 June 2011), para. 96.

551

Art. 8 ECHR, including the right to respect for one’s home, was first introduced in Sect. 2.5.2 on the right to privacy.

552

See, for example: EctHR, J Giacomelli v Italy, Judgment (2 November 2006), para. 76.

553

EctHR, Gillow v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (24 November 1986), para. 46. EctHR, Buckley v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (29 September 1996), para. 45. Laferty (2014), p. 528.

554

EctHR, Niemietz v. Germany, Judgment (16 December 1992), paras. 30 and 31.

555

EctHR, Buckley v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (29 September 1996), para. 54.

556

Buckley was the first Roma case ruled upon by the EctHR. A home within the framework of art. 8 ECHR does not have to be established legally. EctHR, Buckley v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (29 September 1996), paras. 54 and 55.

557

EctHR, Buckley v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (29 September 1996), paras. 54, 55, 60, 63, 74–77 and 80–85.

558

The general interests at play were planning objections and the reaching of the desired maximum number of Roma sites in the area. EctHR, Buckley v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (29 September 1996), paras. 60, 63, 74–77 and 80–85. The EcmHR stated that art. 8 ECHR forms “an intrinsic part of her personal security and well-being”, that special consideration must be paid to the Roma in planning and that the interference by the State was excessive and disproportionate, thereby violating art. 8 ECHR. EcmHR, June Buckley v. the United Kingdom, Report (11 January 1995), paras. 76, 83–86.

559

See, for instance: O’Nions (2007), p. 81; Henrard (2000), p. 104. Minority rights protection, including minority identity, was discussed in Sect. 2.4. See also Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.4) on risks to Roma identity.

560

EctHR, Buckley v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (29 September 1996), Dissention Opinion of Judge Pettiti.

561

EctHR, Buckley v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (29 September 1996), Dissenting Opinion of Judge Lohmus. See Sect. 2.1.3 on formal and substantive equality. See also Chap. 6 on complementing the traditional approach to equality (Sect. 6.1.4) and on the enhancement of culture through the promotion of diversity as the second aim of positive action (Sect. 6.4.2).

562

EctHR, Beard v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 107. The EctHR repeated this in EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 95.

563

EctHR, Beard v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 106. This was confirmed in EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 95.

564

O’Nions (2007), p. 82.

565

See the discussion on formal and substantive equality in Sect. 2.1.3 See also Chap. 6 on positive action, when considering the limitations of the traditional approach to equality (Sect. 6.1.4).

566

EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC).

Id. at para. 73.

Id.

Id. at para. 93.

Id. at para. 96.

EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 96. This was confirmed in EctHR, Connors v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 May 2004), para. 84.

572

Henrard (2008), pp. 114 and 115.

573

EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 98.

574

EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 99. Leckie (2001), pp. 159 and 160.

575

EctHR, Chapman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (18 January 2001, GC), para. 116.

576

Ringelheim (2013b), pp. 427 and 431–434.

577

EctHR, Connors v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 May 2004).

578

The EctHR refers to Chapman in para. 96. EctHR, Connors v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 May 2004), para. 84. O’Nions (2007), p. 83.

579

EctHR, Connors v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 May 2004), para. 94.

580

EctHR, Connors v. the United Kingdom, Judgment (27 May 2004), para. 95. O’Nions (2007), p. 83.

581

O’Nions (2007), p. 83.

582

EctHR, Yordanova and others v. Bulgaria, Judgment (24 April 2012), paras. 102 and 103.

583

EctHR, Yordanova and others v. Bulgaria, Judgment (24 April 2012), para. 130. Similarly, the CERD Committee stipulates that States must “provide alternative, culturally appropriate accommodation” for Roma before evictions are carried out. See: CERD Committee, Concluding Observations on the United Kingdom (1 September 2011), para. 28.

584

EctHR, Yordanova and others v. Bulgaria, Judgment (24 April 2012), paras. 126 and 129. See Sect. 2.5.4 for a discussion on the conditions that interferences with the right to privacy must fulfil.

585

Henrard (2013), pp. 60 and 61.

586

Henrard (2000), p. 109.

587

Id.

588

Ahmed (2011), pp. 186 and 187.

589

See, for example: High Level Advisory Group of Experts on the Social Integration of Ethnic Minorities and their Full Participation in the Labour Market (2007), pp. 3, 4, 7, 19, 30, 31, 39, 40 and 45. The essential role of socio-economic rights in international human rights law was discussed in Sect. 2.7.1. See also Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.1) on the particular vulnerability of Roma in Europe today.

590

See, for example: ACFC, Third Opinion on Bosnia and Herzegovina (7 March 2013), para. 167. ACFC, Third Opinion on Estonia (1 April 2011), paras. 24, 51 and 53. ACFC, First Opinion on Georgia (19 March 2009), para. 131. Henrard (2013), p. 53.

591

Drzewicki (2001), p. 223.

592

Id. at p. 223.

593

Id. at p. 223.

594

Id. at pp. 226 and 227.

595

UDHR, art. 23.1. ICESCR, art. 6.1. CEDAW, art. 11.1(a). (Revised) ESC, art. 1. CFEU, art. 15.1.

596

ICCPR, art. 8. ECHR, art. 4. CFEU, arts. 5.1 and 5.2.

597

Drzewicki (2001), p. 234.

598

Sanz Caballero (2008), p. 166.

599

Ashiagbor (2005), pp. 244 and 246.

600

UDHR, art. 23.1. CFEU, art. 30 (unjustified dismissal).

601

Revised ESC, art. 1.3.

602

CFEU, art. 29.

603

See: UDHR, arts. 23.1, 23.3 and 24. CEDAW, art. 11.1(c)-(f). Revised ESC, arts. 2 to 4. CFEU, art. 31.

604

CRC, art. 32. Revised ESC, arts. 7 and 8. CFEU, arts. 32 and 33.

605

Birth and adoption get equal protection under the CFEU. Art. 11.2 CEDAW also covers protection of women in case of marriage or maternity.

606

See also: Revised ESC, arts. 1.4, 9 and 10. CFEU, art. 14.1.

607

UDHR, art. 23.4. ICESCR, art. 8.1. Revised ESC, art. 24.3. CFEU, art. 12.1.

608

Revised ESC, arts. 6, 21 and 22. CFEU, arts. 27 and 28.

609

ICESCR, art. 7. CEDAW, art. 11.1(b)-(f).

610

A discussion on the context-dependency of the permissive or mandatory nature of positive action at UN level can be found in Chap. 7 (Sect. 7.2).

611

Racial discrimination is prohibited with regard to “(i) The rights to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work, to protection against unemployment, to equal pay for equal work, to just and favourable remuneration; (ii) The right to form and join trade unions”.

612

UDHR, art. 23.2. ICESCR, art. 7. TFEU, art. 157 (former art. 141 TEC).

613

RED, art. 3.1(a) to (f).

614

Protection is only provided on the territory of another State Party. See: Revised ESC, arts. 19, 20, 27 and E. ACFC, First Opinion on Ireland (22 May 2003), paras. 36 and 37. Henrard (2013), pp. 54 and 55.

615

CESCR Committee, Concluding Observations on Costa Rica (4 January 2008), para. 39. The international framework on positive action and the possible compulsory nature of such measures under certain circumstances will be analysed in Chap. 7 (Sect. 7.2). Furthermore, Chap. 8 (Sect. 8.1.2) will zoom in on the CoE framework on positive action and explain that the ECSR and the ACFC require the adoption of positive action measures under certain circumstances.

616

CESCR Committee, Concluding Observations on Hungary (16 January 2008), para. 34. CESCR Committee, Concluding Observations on Ukraine (4 January 2008), para. 37. ACFC, First Opinion on Ireland (22 May 2003), paras. 36 and 37. This will be further addressed in Chap. 10 (Sect. 10.4) when providing examples of positive action for Roma in employment.

617

For instance: CESCR Committee, Concluding Observations on Ukraine (4 January 2008), para. 8. CESCR Committee, Concluding Observations on Hungary (16 January 2008), para. 34. ACFC, First Opinion on Ireland (22 May 2003), para. 36. See Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.1) for a discussion on the five main benefits of ethnic data collection, Chap. 5 (Sect. 5.1.1) on the need for reliable data on Roma, and Chap. 6 (Sect. 6.3.4) on the link between ethnic data and positive action.

618

See Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.1) on the particular vulnerability of Roma in Europe today.

619

Toebes (2012), p. 86.

620

Id.

621

Constitution of the WHO (22 July 1946).

622

Constitution of the WHO (22 July 1946), recital 2.

623

UDHR, art. 25.

624

Leary (1993), p. 485; Toebes (2001), p. 170.

625

Jaroń (2012), p. 102; Toebes (2012), p. 87; Hervey (2005), p. 305; Toebes (2001), p. 174.

626

Toebes (2012), p. 87.

627

Hervey (2005), p. 305.

628

Jaroń (2012), pp. 102–104; Toebes (2001), p. 169; Mann et al. (1994), pp. 16–19, 21 and 22.

629

CFEU arts. 3 and 1 respectively.

630

UDHR, recitals 1 and 5 and arts. 1, 22 and 23.3.

631

Jaroń (2012), pp. 102–104; Hendriks (1998), p. 392.

632

Kenner connects art. 35 CFEU with the analogous provision in art. 168.1 TFEU (former art. 152.1 TEC). Kenner (2003), p. 544.

633

CEDAW, art. 12. CRC, art. 24. ESC, art. 11.

634

The essential role of socio-economic rights in human rights law was underlined in Sect. 2.7.1. Toebes (2001), pp. 170 and 171.

635

Toebes (2012), pp. 89 and 90.

636

CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2 para. 1) (14 December 1990), para. 10. Toebes (2001), pp. 175 and 176.

637

CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2 para. 1) (14 December 1990), para. 10.

638

Global Strategy for Health for All by the Year 2000 (19 November 1981). WHO (1981), p. 31.

639

WHO (1981), pp. 31–53; Toebes (2001), pp. 176 and 177.

640

Global Strategy for Health for All by the Year 2000 (19 November 1981). CESCR Committee General Comment No. 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12) (11 August 2000), para. 12. Toebes (2001), pp. 177 and 178.

641

CERD Committee, Concluding Observations on Guatemala (19 May 2010), para. 13. CERD Committee, Concluding Observations on Colombia (28 August 2009), para. 22. CESCR Committee General Comment No. 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12) (11 August 2000), para. 12. WHO (1981), pp. 31–38. Henrard (2013), p. 62.

642

CESCR Committee General Comment No. 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12) (11 August 2000), paras. 11 and 55. Toebes (2012), pp. 94–96.

643

Toebes (2012), pp. 97–99; Hervey (2005), p. 305; CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 12: The Right to Adequate Food (Art. 11) (12 May 1999), para. 15; Eide (2001b), pp. 23 and 24; Shue (1984), pp. 83–86.

644

Toebes (2001), pp. 179 and 180.

645

For instance: ACFC, Third Opinion on Portugal (4 December 2014), paras. 90 and 106. ACFC, Fourth Fourth Opinion on Slovakia (3 December 2014), paras. 25, 84, 85 and 88. ACFC, Fourth Opinion on Spain (3 December 2014), paras. 32, 112 and 113. Henrard (2013), p. 61. Intersectional discrimination was first introduced in Chap. 1 (Sect. 1.2.3).

646

For example: CRC Committee, Concluding Observations on Finland (3 August 2011), para. 63; Henrard (2013), p. 62.

647

CRC Committee, Concluding Observations on Slovakia (10 July 2007), para. 49.

648

Hervey (2005), p. 305.

649

ECSR, European Roma Rights Centre v. Bulgaria, Decision (3 December 2008), paras. 49 to 51. In the same line, the CESCR Committee states in its General Comment No. 14 that “indigenous peoples have the right to specific measures to improve their access to health care”. See: CESCR Committee, General Comment No. 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12) (11 August 2000), para. 27.

650

EctHR, V.C. v. Slovakia, Judgment (8 November 2011), paras. 106 to 120, 143 to 155, 179 and 180. Henrard (2013), p. 62.

651

Hervey (2005), p. 305; Toebes (2001), pp. 173 and 180.

652

Hervey (2005), pp. 311 and 312.

653

See, for example: CESCR Committee, Chile summary record (partial) of the 12th meeting (16 February 1988), para. 12; CESCR Committee, North Korea summary record (partial) of the 22nd meeting (25 March 1987), para. 17; Toebes (2001), pp. 181 and 182.

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Titel: Human Rights and the Roma: Key Concepts
verfasst von: Jozefien Van Caeneghem
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Legal Aspects of Ethnic Data Collection and Positive Action
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-23667-0

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-23668-7

Copyright-Jahr: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23668-7_2

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