Appendix 1: Estimating the Contribution of Increased Fertilizer Use to Greenhouse Gas Emissions
African countries contribute to climate change through emissions of greenhouse gases from agriculture, forestry and land use (AFoLU). As much as one third of all emissions globally are from AFoLU, but in many African countries these emission sources constitute the major components of their national GHG inventories, rather than the industrial or energy sectors. For instance, in Malawi 80% of national GHG emissions are from forestry and agriculture, although the absolute contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions is tiny. As a result of the Paris Agreements of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) African countries are developing means and measures to mitigate these emissions through actions in the AFoLU sectors, including reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conservation of carbon stocks in forests and agricultural soils, improved management of agricultural waste and other interventions. In spite of actions to reduce emissions, agriculture and forestry will surely be impacted by climate change. As such, many African countries are taking a broad view and are also implementing adaptation strategies.
National climate action strategies are being developed by all African Countries through the process of the Nationally Determined Contributions, or NDC, which is the main reporting instrument that is the focal point for each country’s international commitments. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is being viewed as one model for adaptation. This model focuses on developing interventions in traditional practices that can increase resilience of agricultural systems to adverse effects of climate change and which can be promulgated at the national level and applied locally at farm scale. One compelling intervention under the CSA model is the national subsidy programs for inorganic fertilizers. Increasing the availability and application of chemical fertilizers is seen as a means to increase crop productivity and provide enhanced fertility to nutrient-poor soils, and buffer adverse effects of drought and other climate impacts.
However, at the same time that these measures provide apparent benefits from an adaptation
point of view, the use of inorganic fertilizers also increases GHG emissions in agricultural soils, particularly for non-carbon GHGs
such as nitrous oxide (N
20). Using estimation methods defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC
2006), the FAO
(FAO
2014) has published estimates of national emissions from agricultural inputs for many African countries. GHG emissions from the application of synthetic fertilizers has increased 25% between 2000 and 2014, from 16,000 GgCO2e to 20,000 GgCO2e, representing about 3% of the total emissions from all agricultural practices, including land clearing. However there is considerable variation across Africa, with a trend toward higher proportional emissions from fertilizers in poorer countries. For instance, in Nigeria where other inputs and energy contributed more to agriculture than in most countries, only about 1.2% of the total emissions from agriculture are attributed to fertilizer applications on soils in 2012, while in Malawi as much as 18% of total agricultural emissions are attributed to fertilizer applications in 2012. In Zambia the proportion is 4%, while in Kenya it is 2% for 2012.
For the most part these are relatively low emissions compared to other components of the agriculture production system; however subsidy programs are expected to raise fertilizer use, particularly for poorer countries such as Malawi. These emissions of GHG, especially non-carbon GHG such as N20, represent the negative impacts of measures involving increased use of fertilizer to improve resilience of agricultural soils and plant productivity. Thus, interventions that may have positive influence on adaptation may have outcomes that negatively offset gains in mitigation efforts. For instance, annual emission rates of GHG from fertilizer use in agriculture in Malawi is approximately equivalent to protecting 500 hectares of Miombo woodland from deforestation. The exact magnitude of the offset depends on a complex array of factors that are not being studied, including the type of fertilizer used, fertilizer application rates and timing, influence of episodic events that may be changing with climate changes such as severe rain events, soil conditions and land management.
Most studies, and the IPCC
(
2006), estimate N emission factors for N
20 to be between 1% and 3% of the nitrogen nutrient in fertilizers. Thus, we can estimate the approximate GHG emissions associated with the application
of fertilizer under subsidy programs. We assume an application of 300,000 metric tons of fertilizer, of which half is in the form of urea with 50% N and half in the form of inorganic NPK with 30% N. This would equate to roughly 45,000 metric tons of N from NPK fertilizer and 75,000 metric tons of N from urea. Using IPCC emission factors for N
20 emissions this would result in 1200–3600 metric tons of N
20 per ton of N, which when converted to units of nitrous oxide (multiplied by 44/28) and then to carbon dioxide equivalents using a greenhouse warming potential (GWP) of 300 would be 565,714–1,697,143 metric tons of CO
2 equivalent (CO
2e) greenhouse gas emission. Using IPCC emission factors for urea, we estimate an additional 30,000 metric tons of CO2e. Thus, the total emissions from the application of 300,000 tons of fertilizer of the type we used to make our estimate would be 595,714–1,727,143 metric tons CO
2e per year.
The contributions of inorganic fertilizer to adaption and agricultural resilience would come at a cost to efforts to mitigate emissions from deforestation and degradation; the additional emissions from fertilizer applications would be a significant new emission source and would counter efforts to mitigate emissions in the AFoLU sector.
These estimates are for field applications of inorganic fertilizers. The demand for fertilizer would stimulate production of fertilizers and this production system also produces GHGs, mostly from the large use of energy which are typically from fossil fuels. Although most carbon GHG accounting methods do not attribute production emissions to the end-use emissions, and keep these accounts separate, for the sake of illustration we estimate the additional contribution of producing and transporting 300,000 t of inorganic fertilizer. Several studies suggest an emission factor for fertilizer production to be 2.5–5.67 metric tons of CO
2e per metric ton of fertilizer produced (Kool et al.
2012). Thus, a basic estimate of the magnitude of the emissions associated with the 300,000 additional tons of fertilizer production would be 750,000–1,701,000 metric tons of CO
2e.
Combining both agricultural field emissions with emissions associated with production, we estimate that 300,000 tons of additional fertilizer manufacture and use would result in GHG emissions of between 1,345,714 and 3,428,143 metric tons of CO2 equivalent. Approximately 55% of these emissions are attributed to the industrial production of fertilizers (which we believe are conservative estimates). These estimates would represent an increase in fertilizer emission of approximately 10%, and would represent an emission that counter offsets approximately 120,000 to 300,000 hectares of reforestation in mitigation projects.