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Erschienen in:
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2017 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

1. Introduction

verfasst von : Sara Tjossem

Erschienen in: Fostering Internationalism through Marine Science

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Oceans cover more than two thirds of the planet’s surface and have provided people with seafood and routes of travel for millennia. Though the ocean and its coasts provide resources and livelihoods, the systematic study of ocean currents and sea life began only in the late 19th century. Over the next century, the development of ocean science was spurred by the desire to explore and discover new environments, to harvest food, energy and minerals, and to transport goods. Governments supported ocean research to improve their national security, exploit resources, foster national pride and protect the environment.

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Nächstes Kapitel Constructing PICES
Fußnoten
1
As found in Lovelock (1990, p. 102).
 
2
Nick Bond, State Climatologist of Washington State, USA is credited with its nickname (Peterson et al. 2015).
 
3
The Steller sea lions in US waters are divided into two distinct population segments (DPS) for management. The Eastern DPS has been delisted, but as of 2013, the Western DPS remains listed as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act, according to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game website.
 
4
Productivity decline was attributed to the 1976 regime shift. Competing hypotheses include killer whale predation, illegal shooting, subsistence harvest, and predator-prey interactions shifting fish community structure (Committee on the Alaska Groundfish Fishery and Steller Sea Lions 2003).
 
5
ICES offers its member countries, organizations, and commissions scientific stock assessments that are politically neutral and unbiased, and is notable for its longevity; several other science organizations with only local science, or without flexible organizations, did not persist.
 
6
For example, the IPHC has a reputation of successful management of halibut stocks (McCreary and Brooks 2012), though (Cullis-Suzuki and Pauly 2010) question the commitment to conservation in practice. Lodge et al. (2007) suggest how to improve governance of fisheries.
 
7
Crawford (2002) suggests internationalism in science began to be accepted by scientists only when economic exchanges, transportation and communication began to integrate across national boundaries.
 
8
Its earlier name was the International Council of Scientific Unions. It was founded in the early 1930s as a non-governmental global consortium of national academies and scientific unions to promote excellence in science and its application to policy.
 
9
The International Geophysical Year (IGY) 1956–1959; International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) 1962–1967; The International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) 1971–1980.
 
10
The 1982 UNCLOS agreement updated and expanded a series of conventions created in 1958, and entered into force in 1994.
 
11
Growing public concern may have contributed to the willingness to form a new intergovernmental marine science organization, the focus of this volume.
 
12
It also developed provisions governing scientific research, and created a regime to manage seabed minerals.
 
13
Given the ocean holds the majority of the carbon that moves through the biosphere, questions over the ocean’s role in global biogeochemical budgets and capacity to absorb CO2 have produced several international efforts over the past few decades to measure carbon fluxes. Human impacts add to natural cycles in weather and currents to alter the uptake of carbon.
 
14
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the International Council for Science (ICSU), and the International Oceanographic Commission (IOC) sponsored the World Climate Research Program (WCRP), begun in 1980. CLIVAR (Climate and Ocean: Variability, Predictability and Change) is one of its core projects.
 
15
IOC, WMO, UNEP and ICSU cosponsored GOOS.
 
16
The major fishery treaties mandated statistics and reports on the status and trends of their focal species. The International North Pacific Fisheries Commission (INPFC 1952–1993) was an early trilateral effort by Canada, Japan and the US that produced well-regarded science to support its management responsibilities for anadromous fish and crab dynamics. It dissolved in 1993 when the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission (NPAFC) came into force. For more on the INPFC see, for instance (Wooster and Tjossem 2004). The North Pacific Fisheries Commission (NPFC) is a new intergovernmental organization begun in 2015 for managing high seas fisheries in the North Pacific that includes all PICES members as well as Chinese Taipei.
 
17
As reported by the US National Research Council in 1979, in Wooster (1987).
 
18
For instance, one of the founders of PICES, Warren Wooster, was the first IOC executive secretary (1960–1963), where he helped coordinate the first IIOE. He later served as president of SCOR (1968–1972); ICES (1982–1985); and chair of PICES (1992–1996). The Warren S. Wooster Papers are held at the University of Washington (Accession No. 3354-003). John Knauss wrote a nice appreciation of Wooster in PICES Press 5 (1997).
 
19
The allocation of economically valuable fishery resources is the imposition of political decisions onto natural systems, and is a contentious part of fishery management in part because of different perceptions of what constitutes fair allocation.
 
20
Early proponents offered many names for the new organization, but none made a pronounceable acronym, so they settled on the nickname PICES, to reference the Pacific Ocean and ICES, and the formal name of the North Pacific Marine Science Organization. The PICES name continues to be a bit of a mystery to many new participants. Kuh Kim remarked that when he first attended a PICES meeting, he thought it should be called “NPMSO,” for the North Pacific Marine Science Organization. After serving as chair of science board, he decided that “P means Partnership, I is for Interdisciplinary, C means Collaboration, E is for Exploration, and S is, of course, for Science, [and]… Service. PICES should serve the people around the North Pacific Ocean and PICES should also serve the North Pacific itself for the generations to come.” PICES Annual Report (2007). OP Endnote 10.
 
21
Estimate by Howard Freeland November 2015. Above 30°N, the circulation system is distinct from tropical and subtropical regions.
 
22
For instance, at the 2014 annual meeting, one of the invited speakers presented on the pathways of Arctic Ocean acidification.
 
23
Mexican marine scientists have long been engaged in the scientific opportunities of the organization’s focus, but accession to the intergovernmental convention takes government awareness, interest and commitment. The first scientific meeting organized by PICES in conjunction with Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas del Noroeste, SC (CIBNOR) and Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas del IPN (CICIMAR) took place in 2002 in La Paz, Baja, Mexico, with a three-day symposium on “North Pacific transitional areas,” and attendance by scientists from Canada, Japan, Mexico and the USA. PICES Press 10 (2002): 1–4.
 
24
Huh and Kim (1996) encouraged the Korean government to pay attention to PICES activities both to contribute to the organization, and also benefit Korean marine science.
 
25
Interview 16 October 2013 with Sinjae Yoo, PICES Annual Meeting, Nanaimo, BC, Canada.
 
26
Some scholars propose mathematics is a more universal language, unlikely to be affected by demographic trends that may displace the use of English in the future.
 
27
Participants with extensive experience in international meetings use several techniques to maximize participation. For instance, Ian Perry (Canada) often suggests that presenters write out questions or issues on a whiteboard to make sure that everyone is clear on the focus.
 
28
PICES Annual Report (1993). Resolution 93/A/5.
 
Literatur
Committee on the Alaska Groundfish Fishery and Steller Sea Lions, ed. 2003. The Decline of the Steller Sea Lion in Alaskan Waters: Untangling Food Webs and Fishing Nets. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
Crawford, E. 2002. Nationalism and internationalism in science, 1880–1939: Four studies of the Nobel population. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Galison, P., and B.W. Hevly (eds.). 1992. Big science: The growth of large-scale research. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Hamblin, J. 2016. Oceanographers and the Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science, Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Holland, Geoff, and David Pugh, eds. 2010. Troubled waters: Ocean science and governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huh, Hyung-Tack, and Suam Kim. 1996. Role of PICES and some thoughts on the research direction of Korea in the North Pacific. Ocean Research 18(Special issue: Ecosystem Structure and Living Resource Management in the Eastern Bering Sea): 91–96.
Lodge, M.W., D. Anderson, T. Løbach, G. Munro, K. Sainsbury, and A. Willock. 2007. Recommended best practices for regional fisheries management organizations: Report of an independent panel to develop a model for improved governance by regional fisheries management organizations. London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House).
Lovelock, J. E. 1990. Hands up for the Gaia Hypothesis. Nature 344(6262): 100–102.
Mantua, N.J., S.R. Hare, Y. Zhang, J.M. Wallace, and R.C. Francis. 1997. A Pacific interdecadal climate oscillation with impacts on salmon production. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78: 1069–1079.CrossRef
McCreary, S., and B. Brooks. 2012. Performance review of the International Pacific Halibut Commission. Concur, Inc.
McKinnell, S.M. 2016. Personal communication.
Mitchell, R.B. 2010. International politics and the environment. London: SAGE.
National Research Council. Carbon Dioxide Assessment Committee. 1983. Changing climate: Report of the carbon dioxide assessment committee. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Ocean Studies Board, National Research Council, eds. 2000. 50 Years of ocean discovery: National Science Foundation 1950–2000. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.
Perry, R.I., and S.M. McKinnell, eds. 2005. CoML report: Marine life in the North Pacific: The known, unknown, and unknowable. PICES  Special Publication 2.
Peterson, William, Marie Robert, and Nicholas Bond. 2015. The Warm Blob—Conditions in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean. PICES Press 23(1): 36–38.
Rozwadowski, Helen. 2002. The sea knows no boundaries: A century of marine science under ICES. Copenhagen: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.
Schwach, Vera. 2013. The sea around Norway: Science, resource management and environmental concerns, 1860–1970. Environmental History 18(1): 101–110. doi:10.​2307/​41721481.CrossRef
Tjossem, Sara. 2005. The journey to PICES: Scientific cooperation in the North Pacific. Fairbanks: Alaska Sea Grant College Program.CrossRef
WMO. 1985. Report of the international conference on the assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts, Villach, Austria, October 9–15, 1985.
Wooster, Warren S. 1987. Immiscible investigators: Oceanographers, meteorologists, and fishery scientists. BioScience 37(10): 728–730. doi:10.​2307/​1310470.CrossRef
Wooster, Warren S., and Sara Tjossem. 2004. Scientific cooperation in the North Pacific: The PICES project. San Diego International Law Journal 6: 191.
Zillman, John. 2009. A history of climate activities. WMO Bulletin 58(3): 140–150.
Metadaten
Titel
Introduction
verfasst von
Sara Tjossem
Copyright-Jahr
2017
Buch
Fostering Internationalism through Marine Science

Print ISBN: 978-3-319-41434-8

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-41435-5

Copyright-Jahr: 2017

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41435-5_1