The Seaflower Biosphere Reserve in the Colombian Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina (hereafter, archipelago) is one of the world’s largest Biosphere Reserves since its designation by UNESCO in November 2000. Biosphere reserves have particular and unique importance as places in which to study, learn, and replicate forms of disciplinary mitigation and adaptation worldwide. According to UNESCO, they are sites for testing interdisciplinary approaches to understanding and managing changes and interactions between social and ecological systems, including conflict prevention and management of biodiversity. They are places that provide local solutions to global challenges. Biosphere reserves include terrestrial, marine, and coastal ecosystems. Each site promotes solutions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use (UNESCO n.d.).
These characteristics of biosphere reserves are becoming increasingly important in the context of the worsening climate crisis, and this is especially true of island and coastal biosphere reserves that are disproportionately facing the adverse impacts of climate change. The concept of “local solutions to global challenges” was a key motivation in the development of this book, and indeed the inspiration behind its name.
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There is a simultaneous need to better understand both future regional climate behavior and the most adequate adaptation and mitigation strategies that seek balanced relationships between people and nature. For our purposes, the relevance of biosphere reserves lies in them being zones where local communities and all relevant stakeholders are involved in planning and management around the three pillars of sustainable development: the environmental, the economic, and the social. In this sense, taking into account issues like the conservation of biodiversity and cultural diversity, and socio-culturally and environmentally sustainable economic development, biosphere reserves serve as ideal places to undertake interdisciplinary research and to design and implement strategies of mitigation and adaptation that are developed from and for local contexts and communities.
We should be clear that, while these characteristics of biosphere reserves are unique and important, and make much of the information and recommendations included here relevant for other regions of the world, there were several motivations specific to the archipelago in the decision to produce this book. Firstly, many of the authors included here are natives or residents of the archipelago, and many more who are based across mainland Colombia or in other parts of Latin America regularly undertake research there. Thus, for a range of professional and personal interests, the devastating events of November 2020 were one impetus behind this publication.
In November 2020, Hurricanes Eta and Iota hit the archipelago within the space of a fortnight. While the archipelago has always been affected by Atlantic hurricane seasons, the category 41 Hurricane Eta hit the archipelago on November 2, 2020, followed soon after by category 4 Iota on November 16, 2020—the first time a hurricane of this magnitude directly impacted this group of islands in the Southwest Colombian Caribbean—causing unprecedented damage. In the case of Providencia in particular, over 90% of the housing and infrastructure on the island was destroyed or damaged. Additionally, there was significant damage to the ecosystems on and around the islands of the archipelago, but also key lessons to be learned from the protection offered by these ecosystems to both people and infrastructure during these extreme events.
Moreover, it was not only the initial disaster itself that sparked our interest in this project. On November 18, 2020, the president of Colombia officially declared a state of emergency, with the intent of expediting the reconstruction process. Despite government assurances of rebuilding the lost or damaged infrastructure within 100 days, the entire process has come under heavy criticism from various quarters. It has been described as, at best, disorganized, and at worst, a failure. Additionally, many observers have noted that certain aspects of the response have exacerbated the crises left in the wake of Eta and Iota, as well as compounding existing structural problems in the archipelago predating these disasters. We aim not to discuss this reconstruction process, but rather to focus on providing practical and tangible tools and techniques for a sound decision-making process based on the best available science.
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Additionally, in general terms, the archipelago faces many challenges, some of which are shared by mainland Colombia, and some of which are more particular to the archipelago and other small island developing states (SIDS) in the Caribbean region. As the authors in this book show, these range from environmental challenges—including climate change adaptation, biodiversity loss, and waste management—, questions of access to and use of natural resources––including fresh water––, threats from illegal activities––including illegal fishing, and the trafficking of drugs and endangered species––the resilience of existing infrastructure and public services in the face of climate change and extreme weather events, cultural preservation of the unique and constitutionally protected cultural identity of the Afro-Caribbean Raizal people of the archipelago, and the need to effectively balance economically beneficial activities like tourism with issues of sustainable resource access and use.
Thus, a combination of the disasters of November 2020, the subsequent complicated reconstruction process, and the long-term development and well-being of the archipelago and its native people and residents inspired us to ask the question of what we, as academics, could do to contribute to improving existing mechanisms of resilience, preparedness, disaster response and long-term reconstruction in the case of future extreme weather events which, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) will worsen in the future in both frequency and strength due to climate change.
We decided that a contribution that could have real impacts would be an interdisciplinary book with an emphasis on unifying the results of cutting-edge technical research with the local knowledge, struggles, and experiences of the Raizal people, whose culture mixes influences from various ethnic groups and is thus quite distinct to the people of mainland Colombia, and other residents of the archipelago. In a context where global phenomena like climate change are seriously impacting the lives of individuals and communities in their local settings, it is so important to communicate these local perspectives globally. We believe that addressing the very specific case of the archipelago and its recovery from the 2020 hurricane season can also generate knowledge that contributes to ongoing discussions regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation in both the archipelago, across the Caribbean, and in biosphere reserves and other SIDS generally around the world.
The different disciplines included here all offer valuable insights into how best to prepare for and respond to future extreme weather events, and are key inputs for decision-making by both public sector actors in the archipelago and Colombia, and for any stakeholder with an interest in these processes. Innovative methodologies and precise, up-to-date scientific data are crucial for effective policy-making. Hence the book includes important results including maps, models, and ecosystem-based reconstruction methodologies focused on mangroves and coral reefs among others.
Moreover, as previously mentioned, we believe it is particularly important to recognize and make visible the contributions of many islanders who work in other sectors, including fishers, school teachers, and officials from public institutions. The local knowledge included here offers vital input in terms of topics like fisheries, agriculture, tourism, and cultural practices and, conversely, we expect that the book can also help raise awareness within the communities of the archipelago regarding at-risk species and ecosystems. We believe one of the most important contributions of this book is to unify a range of knowledge in one single resource that can be a go-to reference for anyone interested in climate change mitigation and adaptation in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve, and around the world.
Although one initial idea for the book was to produce a “white paper” with clear and precise recommendations aimed mainly at decision-makers, we later settled upon a broader approach and audience. For this reason, we have created infographics for each chapter to enhance communication of their key messages in a concise and visual way. These infographics can be found in an Appendix at the end of the book. In academia, we often write primarily for other academics and the message stays between us, but this book is an attempt to speak not only to other academics, nor to decision-makers, it is an attempt to integrate different disciplines and sectors and to make communication among them more effective.
The book is divided into three broad sections: (1) Understanding climate change and its socio-environmental impacts in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve, (2) Society, Seaflower marine ecosystem services, and climate change adaptation, and (3) Education and research on climate change. Across these three sections, the authors examine relevant socio-environmental pathways towards collective action for adaptive capacity, and resilience. The ultimate aim is to contribute to sustainable development processes in Seaflower and other biosphere reserves worldwide, always with an emphasis on the importance of these local environments and cultures at the global level.
The first section of the book, Understanding Climate Change and its Socio-environmental Impacts in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve, opens with a chapter that examines the expected behavior of seven atmospheric and oceanic variables in the Caribbean Basin and the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve during the twenty-first century, under two socioeconomic scenarios. By building an ensemble of the five models with the best oceanic resolution in the Caribbean Sea, the authors analyze expected changes in surface air temperature, sea level pressure, surface wind, precipitation, sea surface temperature, sea surface salinity, and sea level, reaching the conclusion that sea level rise in particular will modify the ecological balance in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve and enhance flooding, thus affecting tourism and risking the disappearance of the low elevation islands.
The next chapter uses numerical modeling and field measurements to reconstruct Hurricanes Eta and Iota and their effects on the archipelago in terms of the intensity of winds and waves, and the associated coastal and urban flooding impacts. This reconstruction shows the differentiated contribution of each hazard associated with the passage of Eta and Iota through the archipelago on physical infrastructure, coastal ecosystems, and population, providing valuable input for territorial planning and decision-making regarding vulnerability and risk.
The following chapter offers a rapid remote sensing assessment of the impacts of Hurricane Iota impact on Providencia island’s reef environments, using Google Earth Engine, Satellite Derived Bathymetry, and machine learning to calculate a supervised classification process that delineates six geomorphic reef units. This process is an interesting alternative for monitoring reef cover in extreme events like hurricanes and its integration can enable long-term monitoring by observing the evolution of changes over time and, therefore, provide valuable information to coastal managers and stakeholders in decision-making processes.
The next contribution assesses light pollution in the fringing reefs of San Andrés with a view to reducing stressful conditions at impacted coral reefs. Although the impacts of light pollution on marine life are significant, we still lack understanding of the brightness of natural light from bodies like the Moon. The authors implement innovative techniques and pave the way for future studies that can evaluate light pollution and its impact even more accurately. At the same time, the results of their study provide valuable artificial light management recommendations, in the context of continuous population growth on the island.
The final chapter in the first section analyzes the presence of toxic dinoflagellates along with the incidence of ciguatera in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve. As the study shows, global warming, climate change, nutrients, and sewage discharge favor microalgal blooms, which are becoming more frequent, intense, and lasting. For these reasons, the authors evaluate the potential effects of harmful algal blooms, specifically an economic quantification of their impacts on fishing and tourism. By proposing a conceptual model of an early warning system based on a monitoring program, the authors present a strategy to contribute to the governance and management effectiveness of different institutions in the archipelago.
Moving to the second section of the book, Society, Seaflower Marine Ecosystem Services, and Climate Change Adaptation, opens with a chapter by one of the most influential individuals in the designation of the archipelago as the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve. In this chapter, the author reviews the concept of biosphere reserves, the application of the concept in the case of the archipelago, and the relationship between the concept and climate change, making a clear case for deepening the implementation of the biosphere reserve concept in the archipelago in order to promote social, economic, and environmental sustainability.
The second contribution in this section focuses on the marine ecosystem services of the archipelago as strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation, with emphasis on coral reefs and mangroves. The result of this evaluation is the presentation of different interdisciplinary management tools and recommendations of actions required by different sectors for the protection, restoration, and use of these ecosystems as Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for climate change adaptation and mitigation in the archipelago.
The next chapter analyzes the impacts of climate change on fishery resources in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve, as the fisheries sector is one of the most affected by this phenomenon. By evaluating existing knowledge on this issue and incorporating the perceptions of fishers in the archipelago, the authors identify significant consequences for fishery resources and for the individuals who make their living through this activity, as well as policy strategies to address these risks and vulnerabilities, emphasizing the importance of aligning said strategies with fishers’ priorities and enhancing the resilience of the sector. The chapter highlights the urgency of ecosystem-based and co-management policies and alternatives for the artisanal fishers of the archipelago.
The following chapter focuses on the recovery and reconstruction processes that took place in the archipelago after Hurricane Iota––an event that exacerbated existing vulnerabilities––prioritizing the manner in which the local community responded to the situation by adapting and reorganizing their ways of life. Using insights from cultural perspectives on disasters, climate change, and resilience, the author shows how cultural resilience and community processes can help islanders continue to inhabit the archipelago with well-being and autonomy, even in the context of climate change and increasingly extreme events. We note that this author, a long-term resident of the archipelago, prefers to call the islands “Old Providence and Santa Catalina” instead of their Spanish language names.
The final chapter of this second section examines the impacts of climate change on the tourism sector in the archipelago, as this is its most important economic activity with significant implications for the archipelago’s resource use and territorial planning. By evaluating the knowledge and perceptions of tourism service providers regarding climate change, the authors provide relevant insights into the vulnerabilities of these actors in the face of extreme climatic events and recommendations to mitigate these vulnerabilities in the future.
The third section of the book, Education and Research on Climate Change, evaluates the long-term vulnerability of three archeological sites on the island of Santa Catalina in the context of climate change. As the authors explain, the archeological study of climate change offers analytical tools that allow one to record changes in the landscape, as well as the actions that have been taken to face natural disasters, in order to provide insights into the way culture interacts with climate risks and tools for designing public policy. The authors construct a vulnerability framework and historical reconstruction of the three sites studied since the sixteenth century, with important reflections on the impacts of Hurricane Iota and its impacts on both the sites and the collective memory of the archipelago.
In the penultimate contribution, the authors elaborate a proposal to bring sustainability education to high schools in the archipelago by improving the geographic understanding of the students, recognizing the need for a culturally responsive approach and the potential of geo-literacy tools and strategies as mechanisms to achieve this. The authors, including high school teachers from the archipelago, offer concrete activities and evaluations of their pilot proposal as the basis for future sustainability education directed at young people of different ages that is culturally sensitive to the particularities of the archipelago within the wider context of Colombian national education policies.
In the final chapter, the authors present a much needed literature analysis of the advances and need in marine science research in the archipelago. By constructing a database of existing literature, the authors quantify current knowledge in order to identify both the stronger and weaker areas of knowledge across different areas of the marine sciences and different types of literature, noting that dynamic aspects including responses to climate change are particularly lacking. These insights are important both for academics in the planning of future research, and for policy-makers and other stakeholders given that academic research is a key input for planning processes that can help secure the current and future ecological integrity of the archipelago and the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve.
We wish to thank all of the authors and peer reviewers who have contributed their valuable time and expertise to this book. We believe that their contributions will stimulate critical and interdisciplinary thinking around biosphere reserves and the tropical island regions that are some of the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. By presenting new and different frameworks through which to interpret and understand localized socio-environmental impacts of climate change, we can use these as a starting point to design climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies that put the well-being of ecosystems and humans at their core.
The Editors.
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