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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

4. Iran

verfasst von : Nadjma Yassari

Erschienen in: Filiation and the Protection of Parentless Children

Verlag: T.M.C. Asser Press

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Abstract

Filiation arises under one of several schemes under Iranian law. Primarily, it results from a child being conceived in a marriage and born within a certain time frame, which is the only approved legal framework for establishing a parent-child relationship. At the same time, however, the law concedes the establishment of filiation as a legal fiction in situations where the marriage of the parents cannot be proven or where the circumstances under which it took place are uncertain. Furthermore, filiation can be established through the acknowledgment of a child’s parentage, which creates a full-fledged parent-child relationship. Where those mechanisms do not apply, parentless children are not left entirely without protection. In fact, Iranian law has conceived different schemes to provide for a minimum of legal security and financial support for children of defective, unknown or illegitimate parentage. In particular, the legislature passed the Act on the Protection of Children without a Guardian in 1975, with the aim of integrating parentless children into new families on a permanent basis. In 2013, this Act was repealed and replaced by the Act on the Protection of Children without a Guardian or with an Unfit Guardian in order to provide for both permanent and temporary placements of children in new homes.

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Fußnoten
1
Civil Code [qānūn-i madanī] of May 8, 1928, in Rūznāmih-i Rasmī-i Kishvar-i Shāhanshāhī-i Īrān (ed) Majmūcih-i Qavānīn-i Sāl-i 1307 [Annual Compilation of Laws 1928/29], and of February 17 and March 12, 1935, in Rūznāmih-i Rasmī-i Kishvar-i Shāhanshāhī-i Īrān (ed) Majmūcih-i Qavānīn-i Sāl-i 1313 [Annual Compilation of Laws 1934/35].
 
2
Act on the Protection of Children without a Guardian [qānūn-i ḥimāyat az kūdakān bidūn-i sarparast] of March 20, 1975, Official Gazette no. 8819 of April 20, 1975 (CPA 1975).
 
3
Family Protection Act [qānūn-i ḥimāyat-i khānivādih] of February 4, 1975, Official Gazette no. 8785 of March 3, 1975 (FPA 1975).
 
4
The FPA 1975 has never been officially repealed. Only Article 15 FPA 1975, which provided that a divorced mother of a child could be appointed as the child’s valī, was abolished in 1979, see Official Gazette no. 10094 of October 18, 1979.
 
5
Act on the Protection of Women and Children without a Guardian [qānūn-i ta’mīn-i zanān va kūdakān bī sarparast] of November 15, 1992, in Rūznāmih-i Rasmī-i Jumhūrī-i Islāmī-i Īrān (ed) Majmūcih-i Qavānīn-i Sāl-i 1371 [Annual Compilation of Laws 1992/93], pp 466–468.
 
6
Upon ratification, Iran made the following reservation to the Convention: ‘The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran reserves the right not to apply any provisions or articles of the Convention that are incompatible with Islamic Laws and the international legislation in effect.’ See http://​indicators.​ohchr.​org (accessed January 1, 2017).
 
7
Family Protection Act [qānūn-i ḥimāyat-i khānivādih] of February 19, 2013, Official Gazette no. 19835 of April 11, 2013, pp 1–5 (FPA 2013).
 
8
Draft Law No. 36780/68357 of July 23, 2007, http://​rc.​majlis.​ir/​fa/​legal_​draft/​states/​720519 (accessed May 1, 2012).
 
9
Article 58 FPA 2013.
 
10
Act on the Protection of Children without a Guardian or with an Unfit Guardian [qānūn-i ḥimāyat az kūdakān va nūjavānān bī sarparast va bad sarparast] of October 2, 2013, Official Gazette no. 19997 of October 28, 2013, pp 6–8 (CPA 2013).
 
11
Article 3 FPA 2013.
 
12
Article 1, note 5 of the former Act on the Amendment of the Divorce Provisions [qānūn-i iṣlāḥ-i muqarrarāt-i marbūṭ bih ṭalāq] of November 19, 1992, Official Gazette no. 13914 of December 10, 1992, p 1.
 
13
Author’s 2003 field research in Tehran.
 
14
Article 2 FPA 2013.
 
15
Article 2 FPA 2013.
 
16
Article 8 FPA 2013.
 
17
Madanī Kirmānī 2002, p 30.
 
18
Article 5 FPA 2013.
 
19
See www.​mizanonline.​ir/​fa/​news/​65148 (accessed January 1, 2017).
 
20
Article 1 FPA 2013.
 
21
Article 46 FPA 2013.
 
22
The reference to months in the Iranian Civil Code relates to lunar months.
 
23
Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 52.
 
24
See for this discussion Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 53.
 
25
Shīravī 2016, p 235.
 
26
Kātūziyān 1999, vol II, p 54.
 
27
Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 54; Kātūziyān 1999, vol II, p 61. The Iranian Supreme Court considers spousal intercourse to be a condition for the presumption of paternity (Article 1158 CC). If the non-occurrence of sexual intercourse is proven, the presumption does not apply; judgment of the 33rd Chamber of the Supreme Court no. 33/5321 of February 23, 1995, quoted in Bāzgīr 1999, pp 229–230.
 
28
Article 1157 CC. This does not apply if it is proven that the period between (the last) intercourse between the (ex-)spouses and the birth of the child is less than six months or more than ten months; cf. Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, pp 56–57.
 
29
Al-cĀmilī 2008, p 468. The theory of the sleeping embryo has no basis in the Qur’an or the Sunna and was mainly devised by the Maliki school of law, whose founder Malik ibn Anas appears to have himself been a ‘sleeping embryo,’ Gilson Miller 2006, p 421. The other Sunni schools of law envisage female gestation periods from two to four years, with the Maliki school extending the period up to even seven years, Maghniyyih 2001, pp 92–93.
 
30
Those include Ayatollahs Ali Khamenei and Muhammad Husayn Fadallah, the late Imam Khomeini, Yousef Saanei, Mohammad Mo’men Qomi, Safi Golpayegani, Naser Makarem Shirazi, see Clarke 2009, pp 116–140.
 
31
Some Shiite scholars designate two mothers, the contributor of the egg and the carrying mother, see Mahmoud 2012, p 83. The differences between Sunni and Shiite perspectives mainly stem from a different weighting of the Qur’anic verses 2:76 and 2:58.
 
32
The source of temporary marriages is the Qur’anic verse 4:24: ‘Also (prohibited are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess: Thus hath [God] ordained (prohibitions) against you: Except for these, all others are lawful, provided ye seek (them in marriage) with gifts from your property,– desiring chastity, not formication. Give them their [dowers] for the enjoyment you have of them as a duty; but if, after a dower is prescribed, ye agree mutually (to vary it), there is no blame on you, and [God] is All-knowing, All-wise.’ All translations of the Qur’an are taken from The Holy Qur-ān: English translation of the meanings and Commentary (1990) (Translated by Ali Y) King Fahd Holy Qur-ān Printing Complex, Medina.
 
33
See Haeri 1989, p 1.
 
34
A hadith is a narrative about the life, deeds and actions of the prophet Mohammad. They are to be followed as an example by the Islamic community and are considered the second source of law after the Qur’an.
 
35
See for the hadith on mutcih cAllāmih-Ḥā’irī 2001, pp 71–80.
 
36
Articles 1075–1077, 1085, 1113, 1139 CC. The Afghan Personal Status Code for Shiite Afghans also refers to the possibility of a mutcih marriage, albeit implicitly (see Article 124 para 4 of the Personal Status Code for Shiite Afghans [qānūn-i aḥvāl-i shakhṣiyyih-i ahl-i tashayyuc], Official Gazette no. 988 of July 27, 2009, pp 1–250). Mutcih or mutca (in Arabic) is also available to Bahraini Shiites, although the Bahraini draft code on the personal status of Shiite Bahrainis does not explicitly include regulations on mutca; on the Bahraini draft code, see Al-Ittiḥād al-Nisā’ī al-Baḥraynī 2009, pp 93–111. Iraqi Shiites are subject to the unified Iraqi Personal Status Code applicable to all Iraqi Muslims, which does not allow mutca. The Iraqi draft code on the personal status of Iraqi Shiites also does not encompass regulations on mutca, see Hamoudi 2016.
 
37
Bakhtiar 1996, p 461.
 
38
Rajabī and Muḥammadiyān 2002, p 6; Bakhtiar 1996, p 462; Articles 1158–1163 CC on children also apply to children resulting from a temporary marital bond.
 
39
Imāmī 2005, p 326.
 
40
Muḥaqqiq Dāmād 2002, p 170.
 
41
See Article 1043 CC. The marriage of a widowed or divorced woman does not require the permission of her father, see judgment of the Iranian Supreme Court no. 1-29/1/1363 of April 18, 1984, registration no. 62/62, in Riyāsat-i Jumhūrī (2011) Majmūcih-i Qānūn-i Madanī, 8th edn, Mucāvinat-i Tadvīn-i Tanqīḥ va Intishār-i Qavānīn va Muqarrarāt, Tehran, Article 1043 CC, p 302.
 
42
This including temporary marriages, cf. Article 943 CC and Article 20 FPA 2013 (for permanent marriage) and Article 21 FPA 2013 (for temporary marriage).
 
43
Maghniyyih 2001, pp 96–98; Khan 2010, pp 212–213.
 
44
This was explicitly confirmed by the Legal Department of the Iranian Ministry of Justice, statement no. 7/13311 of September 27, 1993, in Riyāsat-i Jumhūrī (2011) Majmūcih-i Qānūn-i Madanī, 8th edn, Mucāvinat-i Tadvīn-i Tanqīḥ va Intishār-i Qavānīn va Muqarrarāt, Tehran, Article 1158 CC, p 375.
 
45
Ansari-Pour 2001, p 144; Shīravī 2016, p 237.
 
46
See Shabana 2014, p 7, note 11.
 
47
Al-Khumaynī (n.d.), Q. no. 2454, p 497; see also Ansari-Pour 2001, p 144.
 
48
Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 90.
 
49
Cf. Al-cĀmilī 2008, p 570f.
 
50
Cf. Legal Department of the Iranian Ministry of Justice, statement no. 1/7/94 of March 28, 2015, as quoted in Karīmī 2015.
 
51
Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 88.
 
52
Al-cĀmilī 2008, p 570.
 
53
On the conditions for a valid acknowledgement of paternity in the different Islamic schools of law, see Al-cĀmilī 2008, p 469; Khan 2010, p 219.
 
54
Al-Dasūqī 1980, p 413; Al-Marghīnānī (n.d.), p 393.
 
55
Kohler 1976, p 111.
 
56
cĀmirī and Yāsīnī Niyā 2016/2017, p 70, point to the use of medical tests, such as blood and DNA tests. See also below Sect. ‎4.2.3.
 
57
See Article 222ff Iranian Penal Code [qānūn-i mujāzāt-i islāmī] of April 21, 2013, Official Gazette no. 19873 of May 27, 2013, pp 1–32.
 
58
Cf. Articles 1050–1051 CC. The subsequent marriage of persons that had non-marital intercourse while not married to other persons is, however, permissible; cf. Al-Khumaynī (n.d.), Q. 2399, p 488.
 
59
Ansari-Pour 2001, p 144.
 
60
See Kātūziyān 2006, p 214; see Legal Department of the Iran. Ministry of Justice, statement no. 7/5114 of October 12, 1998, in Riyāsat-i Jumhūrī (2011) Majmūcih-i Qānūn-i Madanī, 8th edn, Mucāvinat-i Tadvīn-i Tanqīḥ va Intishār-i Qavānīn va Muqarrarāt, Tehran, Article 1166 CC, p 377, referring to the acknowledgement of filiation by a mother of her child born out of wedlock.
 
61
Cf. Articles 221–232 Iranian Penal Code.
 
62
Cf. fatwa by Khamenei and others, www.​islamquest.​net/​fa/​archive/​question/​fa19638# (accessed October 9, 2018); see Article 172 and 232 Iranian Penal Code.
 
63
The author contacted several Shiite clerics via their online fatwa platforms, including some Shia marjac (title given to the highest level of Shia authority) such as Grand Ayatollah Naser Makarem Shirazi, Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi, and Grand Ayatollah Yousef Saanei. All rebutted the admissibility of DNA tests as a means to undo filiation in cases where the principle of firāsh applied. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, the religious leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, was the only one not to answer the question with reference to the fact that only questions related to general question of fiqh could be answered, but not those that had a judicial aspect (janbih-i qażā’ī) (all on file with author).
 
64
Yazdānī Pūr et al. 2015/2016, pp 85–98; Pīlih et al. 2013, pp 139–158; cĀmirī and Yāsīnī Niyā 2016/2017, pp 55–82; Sādāt Ṭabā’ī 2012, pp 49–74; Bāqirī and Āyatullāh Shīrāzī 2015, pp 79–95.
 
65
Legal Department of the Iranian Ministry of Justice, statement no. 7/1156 of May 16, 2009, in Riyāsat-i Jumhūrī (2011) Majmūcih-i Qānūn-i Madanī, 8th edn, Mucāvinat-i Tadvīn-i Tanqīḥ va Intishār-i Qavānīn va Muqarrarāt, Tehran, Article 1158 CC, p 375.
 
66
Iranian Supreme Court, chamber 1, decision no. 9209970906100634 of October 12, 2013 (on file with author).
 
67
On judicial presumption, see in more details Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, pp 59–60.
 
68
Legal Department of the Iranian Ministry of Justice, statement no. 1/7/94 of March 28, 2015, as quoted in Karīmī 2015.
 
69
Cf. decision of the Court of second instance Tehran of January 17, 2015, http://​judgements.​ijri.​ir/​SubSystems/​Jpri2/​Showjudgement.​aspx?​id=​YzdPR0M1M1JDWUE9​.
 
70
Legal Department of the Iranian Ministry of Justice, statement no. 7/5723 of September 18, 2001, in Riyāsat-i Jumhūrī (2011) Majmūcih-i Qānūn-i Madanī, 8th edn, Mucāvinat-i Tadvīn-i Tanqīḥ va Intishār-i Qavānīn va Muqarrarāt, Tehran, Article 882 CC, p 252; Kātūziyān 1999, vol I, p 127, writes that licān has to take place before the court. The Legal Department of the Iranian Ministry of Justice issued a statement (no. 7/4328 of October 17, 1985, in Riyāsat-i Jumhūrī (2011) Majmūcih-i Qānūn-i Madanī, 8th edn, Mucāvinat-i Tadvīn-i Tanqīḥ va Intishār-i Qavānīn va Muqarrarāt, Tehran, Article 1052 CC, p 308) in which it declared that only judges with a specific (religious) authorization could perform licān. The spouses have to use specific formulas in Arabic. At the same time, licān can only be initiated within two months after the father has learned about the birth of the child (Article 1162 CC); otherwise the courts are barred from hearing such a case.
 
71
See Schacht 2012.
 
72
See Kātūziyān 1999, vol I, p 127.
 
73
Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 70.
 
74
Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, pp 60–61; cĀmirī and Yāsīnī Niyā 2016/2017, p 68.
 
75
cĀmirī and Yāsīnī Niyā 2016/2017, p 68.
 
76
Article 1168 CC.
 
77
Articles 862–863 CC.
 
78
Pursuant to Article 41 note 1 of the Act on the Registration of Matters of Personal Status [qānūn-i sabt-i aḥvāl] of July 7, 1976, Official Gazette no. 9212 of August 14, 1976, the child takes the surname of her father.
 
79
Shiite jurisprudence defines zinā as sexual intercourse between persons not married to each other who are of age and maturity and who know that their intercourse is prohibited, see Al-cĀmilī 2008, p 647. For an analysis of Articles 221ff see Kamalipour Ravari and Taram 2016, p 89f.
 
80
Maghniyyih 2001, p 530; Kohlberg 1985, p 249.
 
81
Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 128.
 
82
See for a discussion of the consequences of the absence of a kinship relation between the parent and their illegitimate child, Kohlberg 1985, p 245, referring to the question of marriage.
 
83
Kātūziyān 1999, vol II, p 25; Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 126ff; see also the detailed account of the various opinions in cAẓīmzādih Ardibīlī and Ṭūqānīpūr 2011.
 
84
Quoted in Ansari-Pour 2001, p 148.
 
85
To this end the Iranian legislature enacted several acts, e.g. the Act on the Protection of Women and Children without a Guardian providing that children without caretakers had to be taken care of by the Juvenile Welfare Centers.
 
86
Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 123.
 
87
Decision of the 22nd Chamber of the Supreme Court and decision of the 30th Chamber of the Supreme Court (on file with author).
 
88
Decision of the Plenary Assembly of the Iranian Supreme Court no. 617 of July 24, 1997, in Riyāsat-i Jumhūrī (2011) Majmūcih-i Qānūn-i Madanī, 8th edn, Mucāvinat-i Tadvīn-i Tanqīḥ va Intishār-i Qavānīn va Muqarrarāt, Tehran, Article 884 CC, p 252.
 
89
For a detailed account of the Supreme Court’s judgment, see Ansari-Pour 2001, 151ff.
 
90
See also decision of the Iranian Supreme Court no. 71/69/30, file no. 10/30/636, quoted in Bāzgīr 1997, p 195.
 
91
Decision of the Iranian Supreme Court no. 71/1021/7, quoted in Bāzgīr 1997, pp 195–196.
 
92
Ṣafā’ī and Imāmī 2011, p 129.
 
93
See Article 3 of the Iranian Code of Civil Procedure [qānūn-i āyīn-i dādrasī-i dādgāhhā-i cumūmī va inqilāb] of April 9, 2000, Official Gazette no. 16070 of April 30, 2000, pp 28–50.
 
94
Naẓarī Tavakkulī 2012, p 344.
 
95
See Anṣārī (n.d.), p 346.
 
96
See Anṣārī (n.d.), pp 349–350.
 
97
On the use of the term orphan, see Yazbak 2001, p 124.
 
98
Article 1184 sentence 2 CC: This provision will be applicable in cases where the guardian of the child is unable to administer the estate of his ward owing to his advanced age, sickness or similar reasons.
 
99
Article 1218ff CC; Article 48ff of the Code of Non-Contentious Proceedings [qānūn-i umūr-i ḥisbī] of June 23, 1940, in Rūznāmih-i Rasmī-i Kishvar-i Shāhanshāhī-i Īrān (ed) Majmūcih-i Qavānīn-i Sāl-i 1319 [Annual Compilation of Laws 1940/41], pp 59–138.
 
100
See Legal Department of the Iranian Ministry of Justice, statement no. 7/3332 of July 31, 1975, in Riyāsat-i Jumhūrī (2011) Majmūcih-i Qānūn-i Madanī, 8th edn, Mucāvinat-i Tadvīn-i Tanqīḥ va Intishār-i Qavānīn va Muqarrarāt, Tehran, Article 1167 CC, p 377; Shīravī 2016, p 237.
 
101
Kātūziyān 1999, vol II, p 260.
 
102
Beevers and Ebrahimi 2002, p 170.
 
103
Article 1246 CC.
 
104
Beevers and Ebrahimi 2002, p 172.
 
105
Specifically, in the Act on the Protection of Women and Children without a Guardian.
 
106
Kātūziyān 1999, p 404ff; Tavasulī Nāʼīnī 2010, p 103.
 
107
Judgment of the Iranian Court of Cassation no. 22-6/4/1360 of June 27, 1981, Official Gazette no. 10735 of January 2, 1982, cited in Kātūziyān 1999, vol II, p 407.
 
108
Beevers and Ebrahimi 2002, p 174.
 
109
Beevers and Ebrahimi 2002, p 174.
 
110
Beevers and Ebrahimi 2002, p 171.
 
111
See interview with Hamid Reza Alvand, the president of the Organisation for the Welfare of Children and Youth, from November 18, 2013, www.​mehrkhane.​com/​fa/​print/​9058 (accessed August 23, 2016); see also interview with the vice-president of the organization, Habibollah Masʻudi, from December 16, 2016, www.​mehrkhane.​com/​fa/​print/​30420 (accessed August 23, 2016), in which he points to the fact that 78% of the children under the supervision of the welfare centers do have either a living mother or father.
 
112
For an account of the parliamentary debates on the conception and enactment of the Acts, Yassari 2015, pp 957–959.
 
114
As for example in Article 8 note 1 and Article 10 CPA 2013.
 
115
Articles 26 and 35 CPA 2013.
 
116
Decisions on file with author.
 
117
Article 45 FPA 2013.
 
118
For the procedure see Decree for the Implementation of the CPA [āyīn-nāmih-i ijrāyī-i qānūn-i ḥimāyat az kūdakān va nūjavānān bī sarparast va bad sarparast] of July 11, 2015, Official Gazette no. 20492 of July 14, 2015, pp 7–8.
 
119
Articles 1, 11 CPA 2013.
 
120
Article 11 CPA 2013.
 
121
Article 13 CPA 2013.
 
122
Sharīcatī Nasab 2011, pp 88–89. This book evaluates the provisions of the CPA 1975, but the analysis is also applicable to the new Act as far as the procedure is concerned since no changes have been introduced in this respect.
 
123
See www.​khabaronline.​ir/​print/​316561/​society/​social-damage? of October 8, 2013 (accessed August 23, 2016); see also mehrkhane.​com/​fa/​print/​30515 of December 24, 2016 (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
124
See report of Al Arabiya (June 15, 2015) Inside Iran: The industry of child trafficking, english.​alarabiya.​net/​en/​perspective/​features/​2015/​06/​15/​Inside-Iran-The-industry-of-Child-trafficking.​html (accessed August 23, 2016). According to a 2012 report by Humanium, an international child sponsorship NGO dedicated to stopping violations of children’s rights throughout the world, ‘[m]ost of these children are not orphans, but usually have drug-addicted [or unemployed and refugee] parents, which forces them [to live in the streets and] to work to help support their families’, see Humanium (March 15, 2012) Children of the [sic] Iran – Realizing Children’s Rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, www.​humanium.​org/​en/​middle-east-north-africa/​iran (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
125
Sharīcatī Nasab 2011, p 92.
 
126
As to previously unmarried women, the article uses the word dukhtar, which translates to ‘maiden;’ the term ‘zan’ denotes women who are divorced or widowed.
 
127
Article 6 CPA 2013.
 
128
Article 6 CPA 2013.
 
129
Act on the Observance of the Personal Status of Non-Shiite Iranians in the Courts [qānūn-i ijāzih-i racāyat-i aḥvāl-i shakhṣiyyih-i īrāniyān-i ghayr-i shīcih dar maḥākim] of July 22, 1933, Official Gazette no. 3157 of August 1, 1933.
 
130
That is, nine lunar years for girls and fifteen lunar years for boys, Article 1210 note 1 CC.
 
131
Article 9 CPA 2013.
 
132
Article 8 CPA 2013.
 
133
Article 8 lit. a and b CPA 2013. Furthermore, lit. b points to the fact that the vaṣī of the child must also be deceased for the child to be eligible for permanent sarparastī. Under Iranian law the vaṣī is a person chosen by the valī by testamentary disposition to take over vilāyat after his death.
 
134
According to Article 8 lit. c and d CPA 2013, the biological parents, the parental ascendants and the vaṣī are to be given priority for sarparastī even if they are only able to assume sarparastī with the assistance of a court-nominated supervisor (nāẓir).
 
135
Parsnews.​com; according to the online newspaper mehrkhane, although the number of families taking on a child is rather high (seven applicants per child), most of them want to care for a baby under six months, see www.​mehrkhane.​com/​fa/​print/​30420 of December 19, 2016 (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
136
Article 17 CPA 2013.
 
137
See Beevers and Ebrahimi 2002, p 174.
 
138
Article 14 note 1 and Article 15 note 1 CPA 2013.
 
139
Article 19 CPA 2013.
 
140
See Articles 1180–1181 CC.
 
141
See Article 1188 CC.
 
142
Article 10 CPA 2013. The awarding of that position is further conditional on the approval of the Juvenile Welfare Center and is subject to Articles 1184 and 1187 CC. On the qayyim and the amīn, see above Sect. ‎4.4.1.
 
143
Articles 1184, 1218ff CC; Article 48ff Code of Non-Contentious Proceedings; see also Beevers and Ebrahimi 2002, p 170.
 
144
See Article 95 Code of Non-Contentious Proceedings.
 
145
Article 16 CPA 2013.
 
147
See www.​khabaronline.​ir/​print/​316561/​society/​social-damage? of October 8, 2013 (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
148
See the first draft of the Act of February 22, 2009, first lecture in the Parliament (1st year, 8th session), registration no. 288 (on file with author).
 
149
Parliamentary Committee Statement of July 29, 2009 (on file with author).
 
150
Statement of the Expert Committee of the Parliament of March 7, 2009, registration no. 288, p 15 (on file with author).
 
151
See Article 26 note 1 of the second draft of the Act of October 13, 2009, registration no. 288/34852 (on file with author).
 
152
The Council of Guardians is an appointed and constitutionally mandated twelve-member organ that is charged under Articles 94 and 96 of the Iranian Constitution with interpreting the Constitution and ensuring the compatibility of legislation passed by the Parliament with the criteria of Islam and the Constitution. All draft laws must therefore be presented to the Council, and its approval is necessary for any law to come into force.
 
153
See Statement of the Council of Guardians no. 91/35/47840 of August 15, 2012, p 2 (on file with author), see also interview with Prof. Hosseyn Mehrpour, Dean of the Law Faculty of the Shahid Beheshti University, from November 18, 2013, www.​mehrkhane.​com/​fa/​print/​9058 (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
154
See Statement of the Expert Committee of the Parliament of November 3, 2012, registration no. 24012435-1 (on file with author).
 
155
See interview with Iranian lawyer Mohamad Maqsud from October 6, 2013, www.​yjc.​ir/​fa/​print/​4581909 (accessed August 23, 2016); see also www.​salamatnews.​com/​news/​85571 of October 29, 2013 (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
156
See for example the proposal of Ayatollah Makarem Shirazi, www.​khabaronline.​ir/​print/​316561/​society/​social-damage? of October 8, 2013 (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
157
Al-cĀmilī 2008, pp 392–398.
 
158
Al-cĀmilī 2008, p 397. The marriage must be valid at the time of nursing, Altorki 1980, pp 233, 234; Fortier 2007, pp 18–19.
 
159
See Haeri 1989, p 89ff.
 
160
Under Shiite law, a man may not under any condition marry any of his biological father’s wives, see also Article 1048ff CC.
 
161
See Haeri 1989, pp 89–96 for examples of non-sexual ṣīghih.
 
162
See first opinion of the Expert Committee of the Parliament (daftar-i muṭālacāt-i ḥuqūqī) of August 25, 2009, serial no. 9667-1 (on file with author).
 
163
See interview with Prof. Mozaheri, Dean of the Psychology Faculty of the Shahid Beheshti University, from November 18, 2013, www.​mehrkhane.​com/​fa/​print/​9058 (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
164
See www.​salamatnews.​com/​news/​85571 of October 29, 2013 (accessed August 23, 2016); see interview with Prof. Fereshte Motavi, member of the research group on family law at the Shahid Beheshti University, from November 18, 2013, www.​mehrkhane.​com/​fa/​print/​9058 (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
165
See Yassari et al. 2017, pp 340–341.
 
166
See Article 2 CPA 1975.
 
167
See Decree for the Implementation of Article 22 CPA 2013 [āyīn-nāmih-i ijrāyī-i māddih-i 22 qānūn-i ḥimāyat az kūdakān va nūjavānān bī sarparast va bad sarparast] of July 12, 2015, Official Gazette no. 20494 of July 16, 2015, p 3.
 
168
Article 6 Decree for the Implementation of Article 22 CPA 2013.
 
169
Article 5 Decree for the Implementation of Article 22 CPA 2013.
 
170
Article 22 CPA 2013.
 
171
See interview with Prof. Fereshte Motavi, member of the research group on family law at the Shahid Beheshti University, from November 18, 2013, www.​mehrkhane.​com/​fa/​print/​9058 (accessed August 23, 2016).
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Iran
verfasst von
Nadjma Yassari
Copyright-Jahr
2019
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-311-5_4