Japan and the Middle East

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. A Conceptualisation of Japan’s Relations with the Middle East

   Satoru Nakamura, Steven Wright

   Abstract

   The concept of complex interdependence is revisited and applied to Japan’s relations with the Middle East. The roles of security, international actors, and intercultural communication in complex interdependence is redefined, and a new multifaceted framework is used to analyze case studies of bilateral relations between Middle Eastern countries and Japan. This included numerous channels, different agendas, diversity of interests, nonmilitary security agenda, in addition to cultural relations. This framework for multifaceted interdependence extends the research agenda for the Middle East-Japan relations beyond the focus of oil and gas trade relations, to cover the greater significance and context of non-energy trade and investment, peculiar security concerns, and multilateral effects of the interregional interdependence.

3. Chapter 2. Japan’s Relations with Saudi Arabia: The Evolution of Energy Diplomacy in Response to the Developmental Shift in the Rentier State

   Makio Yamada

   Abstract

   Japan’s energy diplomacy with Saudi Arabia has been evolving in response to the developmental shift in the latter, a country known as a “rentier state.” Before the 1970s, when Saudi oil was supplied to Japan by the American capital, energy diplomacy was largely about maintaining a friendly diplomatic relationship. However, when Aramco came to be nationalized, Japan began to deal directly with the Saudi state for the supply of oil. As Saudi Arabia simultaneously embarked on diversifying its economy away from oil, the two countries developed a reciprocal relationship, with Japan facilitating investment by Japanese firms in the Saudi economy, and Saudi Arabia supplying oil to Japan in a stable manner. This quid pro quo arrangement was institutionalized in the form of the Japanese-Saudi Economic and Technological Cooperation Agreement in 1975, recently upgraded to Saudi Japan Vision 2030. In recent years, the two countries have also been advancing educational cooperation, derived from the need to enhance human capital in Saudi Arabia to attract investment, as the rentier state creates a unique labor market requirement, namely the low availability of the low-cost labor model adopted elsewhere and the need to directly transition to a knowledge-based economy.

4. Chapter 3. Japan–UAE Relations: Establishment of Multifaceted Interdependence Based on Energy

   Koji Horinuki

   Abstract

   This chapter discusses the development of bilateral relations between Japan and the UAE. The relationship between the two countries began in the late 1960s and developed through oil development, import, and export. Fifty years have passed since then, and although the bilateral relationship has become very diversified, energy remains the foundation of the two countries’ relationship today.

5. Chapter 4. The Three Cycles of Rise and Fall in Iran–Japan Relations: From Energy Studies to Political Causal Analysis

   Tomoyo Chisaka

6. Chapter 5. The Relations Between Japan and Turkey: Three-Dimensional Diplomacy—Roles of the Imperial Family, the Government, and Citizens

   Yuko Omagari

   Abstract

   The friendly relations between Japan and Turkey have recently resurfaced thanks to the fictional movie, based on real-life events, titled Ertuğrul 1890 (Kainan 1890). The movie shows that ties between Japan and Turkey don’t rely solely on economic relations but on social and cultural friendships. By overview of the political, economic, and diplomatic relations of the two nations from the end of the nineteenth century to the present, this paper describes and discusses the roles of the three dimensions of diplomacy in Japan-Turkey relations, including royal, governmental, and citizen-led. In the end, by assessing the activities of the Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archeology, which articulates the three aforementioned dimensions of diplomacy, this paper addresses how each dimension continues to shape the relationships between Japan and Turkey.

7. Chapter 6. Japan–Egypt Bilateral Relations: A Main Pillar of Japanese Middle Eastern Policy

   Takayuki Yokota

   Abstract

   In Japan, mainstream scholars of diplomatic history and Middle Eastern area studies have almost entirely neglected Japan–Egypt bilateral relations. However, Japan and Egypt have maintained a friendly relationship and recognized each other as a significant partner since the 19th century. This chapter discusses the unique, multi-face bilateral relationship between these two countries in the fields of economy and trade, diplomacy, and culture. These three areas form the main pillars supporting the bilateral relationship and are to be examined in detail. This chapter describes the realities of the relationship beyond a narrow perception of academic specialties and points out that the new pluralism in Japan’s diplomacy “finds” Egypt anew in the 21st century. Given that the close bilateral relationship with Egypt is a substantial aspect of the critical core of Japan’s Middle Eastern policy, the countries’ relationship should be studied more adequately and accurately.

8. Chapter 7. Beyond Power, Before Interdependence: Complex Synergy and Japan–Israel Relations

   Matthew Brummer, Eitan Oren

   Abstract

   Japan and Israel share much in common. Both are parliamentary democracies, both adhere to free-market economic principles and both count the United States as a strategic alliance partner and security patron. Given the shared institutional systems across political, economic, and security affairs, one might assume—and much International Relations theory would predict—a robust bilateral relationship spanning government, industry, and citizen affairs. Yet, for most of the post-WWII period, relations between Japan and Israel have remained remarkably undeveloped, with feeble trade and investment, non-committal political engagement, and a void where there would otherwise be strategic-military cooperation. At the turn of the 21st century, this began to change, with rapid rapprochement beginning during the Shinzo Abe and Benjamin Netanyahu administrations. Parting from the traditional explanation that OPEC has determined Japan-Israel relations, this study argues that the causal forces of bilateral affairs are far more complex and cut across economic, political and security domains of foreign diplomacy.

9. Chapter 8. Oil Market and Supply: From the Perspective of Japan's Energy Policy

   Takeru Hosoi

   Abstract

   Oil is an essential resource in modern society. However, as Japan has no oil resources, it imports most of it from abroad and consequently has close economic relations with Middle Eastern countries, especially the Gulf countries, through its trade in oil. Japan and other Asian countries, such as China and India, which have been rapidly increasing their oil consumption in recent years, are important customers for Middle Eastern oil producers.

10. Chapter 9. The LNG Sector in Japan’s Relations with the Middle East

    Steven Wright

    Abstract

    To evaluate the factors behind Japanese political and economic interests in the Middle East and its link to the LNG industry, the history and dynamics driving the expansion of the LNG sector in Japan have been identified to provide a contextualization. Given Japan’s historical energy security needs, its relations with the Middle East have been important to economic development. The LNG sector has proved to be a vital driver of interaction with important Middle Eastern nations, particularly Qatar, and a way to enhance commerce, technology transfer, and energy security considerations.

11. Chapter 10. Investment and Trade Promotion Policies: Gulf and Japan’s Non-energy Sector Interdependence

    Jun Saito

    Abstract

    As energy resource suppliers for Japan, the GCC countries have been important economic partners and outstanding benefactors of the Japanese economy and its prosperity since World War II. With the aim of the steady supply of energy, Japan steadily reduced its dependence on oil and natural gas and moved towards nuclear power for many years, thus diversifying its energy source and relying less on the GCC countries. However, after the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011, Japanese energy policy changed remarkably and is now reverting back once again to fossil fuel energy and its previous dependence on these oil-producing nations.

12. Chapter 11. Origin of Japan’s Relations with Middle Eastern Countries by Practical Internationalism

    Satoru Nakamura

    Abstract

    Japan’s Middle East goals and strategies have been difficult to understand, except its desire for energy supply security. In fact, Japan’s Middle East policy has shifted drastically, with a unique principle of non-use of force. Although this seems like a lack of strategy in one way, Japan managed to opt for practical and flexible policy options in the Middle East. At least diplomatic experts in Egypt, Israel and Saudi Arabia are in high favour of Japan. Yasumasa Kuroda surprisingly pointed out that Japan’s Middle East policy did not follow US requests at the First Oil Shock and the Gulf War in 1990–1991. Thus, Japan’s relative autonomy in Middle East diplomacy is the focus of analysis in this chapter. The analysis is based on citations from primary sources, such as memoirs and government reports. Five streams of diplomatic orientation within Japan’s policy-making circle—mercantilists, pacifists, middle-power internationalists, normal-nation internationalists and new nationalists—are clarified by examining the political trends of major prime ministers. Seven features of Japan’s Middle East policy stemming from practical internationalism are summarised.

13. Chapter 12. Nonmilitary Contribution by Japan in the Gulf Crisis 1990–1991: Funding, Intelligence Gathering, Releasing Hostages, and Minesweeping

    Satoru Nakamura

    Abstract

    Japan’s internationalists began to play a central role in leading Japan’s foreign policy formation after the Gulf Crisis of 1990–1991. Nevertheless, Japan’s foreign policy was not carried out solely by their views and actions. Although Antonio Inoki’s release of hostages in Iraq is not well known in the world, his pacifist-tone conducts pushed the Iraqi government to free foreign hostages. This chapter will deal with aspects of Japan’s engagement in the Gulf Crisis, including funding to the coalition force, appreciation by the Arabs to Japan, relief of hostages in Iraq, intelligence gatherings in Iran, and minesweeping activities in the Gulf. These Japan’s activities were kept unknown to the world, and they seem to be a part of Japan’s quiet diplomacy.

14. Chapter 13. Empirical and Conceptual Conclusions on Japan’s Interdependence with the Middle East

    Satoru Nakamura, Steven Wright

    Abstract

    Given the variations identified in Japan's relations with Middle Eastern countries and on related thematic issues revealed in this volume, it is argued that the characteristics identified provide a firm basis for the adoption of an original conceptualisation of 'multifaceted interdependence'. The way Japan’s bilateral relations towards the Middle East have been approached within this framework is proposed to principally rest on five distinct classifications, which reflect Japan’s Official Development Assistance implementation in the Middle East, energy and non-energy trades and foreign direct investments, diplomatic ties, and security cooperation. All were undertaken through multiple channels and layers of linkages, common interests in defense and regime security, cultural exchanges, in addition to overseas development assistance. Middle East-Japan multifaceted interdependence allows for a more in-depth understanding of the promotion of mutual interests and stability, and how they relate to Japan’s multilateral relations with Western countries through managing conflicting interests.

15. Backmatter