Key Themes in Energy Management

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1. Frontmatter

2. Renewable and Alternative Energy Sources

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Exploring Social Inclusion for Clean Energy and Sustainable Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

      Anisa Kabir Abdulfatah, David Junior Gilbert

      Abstract

      Access to clean, affordable, and sustainable energy is a pivotal economic development and environmental sustainability driver. This is particularly necessary in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where energy poverty persists. Despite this region’s vast potential for renewable energy, numerous challenges have hindered successful implementation, necessitating innovative adoption strategies. This chapter presents an analysis of the state of clean energy adoption in SSA, the role of social inclusion in promoting clean energy adoption and the challenges of promoting clean energy adoption using social inclusion strategies in SSA. A scoping review was undertaken using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Seventeen scholarly articles were identified as eligible for inclusion in the final synthesis. Analysis of the identified studies categorises challenges of adopting social inclusion strategies at clean energy projects’ planning, implementation, and output stages. The chapter further provides potential opportunities for involving local communities as stakeholders, building trust, and fostering decentralised energy communities to address these challenges.

   3. Driving the Green Revolution: Strategies and Best Practices for Effective Energy Management in Africa

      Nabila Ahmed Rufa’I

      Abstract

      Africa has a huge potential for harnessing renewable energy to solve its energy needs. However, current installed capacity for renewable energy systems within the region is notably limited. It becomes quite critical to examine how the operation of such systems may be optimised to ensure reliability and flexibility. This chapter therefore explores the importance of developing efficient energy management strategies for harnessing Africa’s vast renewable energy sources. It emphasises the significance of the topic by highlighting Africa’s pressing energy needs and the necessity to bridge energy access gaps. The strategies, if applied to the energy systems, may contribute towards alleviating energy poverty, fostering sustainable and economic development, as well as mitigating the impacts of climate change within the continent.

   4. Relational Dynamics of Adoption-Decision Factors: The Case of Photovoltaic Energy Technologies in the Ghanaian Building Industry

      Naa Adjeley Ashiboe-Mensah Doamekpor, Fatima Eshun, Michael Nii Addy

      Abstract

      Although there are concerns about emissions in the manufacture and transportation of Photovoltaics (PV), they still are considered viable alternatives to fossil fuels. Ghana has therefore targeted to increase solar PV applications in homes (solar home systems) as part of its goal to increase renewable use to 10% of its energy supply by 2030. However, PV adoption is not automatic and an appreciation of the factors that play a role in each context within which the technologies are to be adopted is essential to their successful adoption. Financial constraints are often cited as the major barrier to the implementation of solar projects. However, there are examples of individuals who still choose to adopt PV technologies, attesting to the fact that several factors beyond cost influence the adoption process. The aim of the study is therefore to explore the factors of PV adoption in their real-life context by presenting 2 cases of adoption within the Ghanaian building industry. Although cost is a key concern, it is only a hindrance as far as the adoption context will allow it. The study extends an Innovation adoption framework by providing evidence for the final two stages of the adoption process. The study helps to understand how to direct promotional efforts for more successful adoption.

   5. Techno Economic Assessment of Developing Off-Grid Photovoltaic (PV) System for Electrification in Gombe, Nigeria

      Aisha Sa’ad, Aime C. Nyoungue, Zied Hajej, Akilu Yunusa-Kaltungo, Abubakar Aminu Sahabi, Cyril Amaghionyeodiwe

      Abstract

      Electrification and access to electricity remains a big challenge especially in developing nations such as Nigeria. The current energy supply mechanisms are faced with many challenges one of which is depending on single energy source. Despite the efforts made by the Nigerian Government to ensure electricity availability, the energy supply remains insufficient due to numerous factors such as losses encountered during distribution, and lack of proper maintenance amongst others. Therefore, this work proposes a techno-economic assessment of developing off-grid photovoltaic (PV) system for powering residential homes in Gombe, Nigeria. This is envisaged as one of the ways of mitigating the current electricity situations of the location. Additionally, the long-term perspectives of off-grid PV systems are very favourable based on its ongoing technological improvements and cost reductions. This paper studies four energy consumption cases of which each could cover a combination of basic energy needs regarding lighting, cooling, food conservation and electronic appliances. Case I considers a system that supplies power for LED lamps and electronic devices. Accordingly, Cases II and III respectively incorporate refrigeration and air conditioning systems, while Case IV integrates both air conditioning and refrigeration systems into case I. The modelling and optimization of the four cases are performed using the System Advisor Model (SAM) software, based on its proven efficiency in the provision of optimal cost solutions for off-grid PV systems. The outcomes of the techno-economic assessment of the applications considered in this study are crucial to the understanding of the practical potentials of off-grid PV system-based generation.

   6. An Overview of Electrical Vehicle and Smart Grid Technology

      Abdullahi Abubakar Mas’ud, Asan Vernyuy Wirba, Firdaus Mohammad-Sukki, Yusuf Abubakar Sha’aban

      Abstract

      This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of the present state of knowledge regarding future interactions between electric vehicles (EVs) and the smart grid. In particular, the integration of smart infrastructure with renewable energy sources (RES) will be discussed. Future EV deployment and the ultimate goal of the smart grid present a number of challenges for the electric grid's control, infrastructure, and communication. EVs can assist the grid in managing frequency and voltage, peak power level, and reactive power in order to enhance operational efficiency, grid protection, and power system costs. Findings from many research show that smart grids improve EV compatibility. In addition, there is a need for more research on vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems as alternative energy storage. Also, few studies have addressed communication latency, routing protocols, and cyber security, which are crucial for the adoption of a framework for V2G transactions in a smart grid that is reliable and effective. Vehicle manufacturers are concerned about the limitations of EV technology, including the lack of low-cost, high-efficiency power converters for EV chargers. The deterioration of V2G batteries is another concern, but recent research on implementing lithium Ferro phosphate batteries has shown promise. To increase its adoption, additional research on battery life extension and the effectiveness of V2G is required.

   7. Impact of Solar Energy on Nigeria’s Electricity Supply Challenges

      Femi Lateef Yusuff

      Abstract

      Electricity Power supply in Nigeria is important because of its impact on industrial and human capital development. However, despite huge investments in the sector, there is a wide gap between the power generated and the power distributed, which has impacted the growth of all sectors of the economy. Nigeria has the largest economy in Sub-Saharan Africa, and its slow economic development is largely linked to a poor electric power supply. In addition to poor power generation, several human factors, such as connection inefficiencies, leakages, and other negative activities, affect power distribution. The goal of conducting this research is to investigate key challenges in the sector and identify the best solutions to mitigate them. Several studies have been undertaken in the past to assess various sectors of the Nigerian economy and the impact of consistent power supply. This study explored possible solutions to the identified challenges and assessed the impact of implementing the solar photovoltaic (PV) solution because it was identified as one of the most viable options for solving some of the identified challenges. A desk study approach was adopted, which leveraged data collected and analyzed by various authors. This allowed critical analysis of the authors’ views in different sectors of global economic development, such as academics, international finance organizations, consultants, and key industry professionals, to understand and propose a viable solution. The analysis that was conducted showed that various methods of power generation could complement the major reliance on hydropower generation in Nigeria. However, the major distribution challenge is better solved by systems that can generate and distribute power independently without relying on an ineffective national grid. The solar photovoltaic (PV) system is recommended in this research as a viable option because the average quantity of solar energy received in Nigeria is approximately 120,000 (One Hundred and Twenty Thousand) times the total generating capacity of Nigeria’s Power Holding Company (PHCN). Solar power generation is becoming more affordable in Nigeria and has recorded a 22% annual growth in adoption in the past five years. Findings from research conducted by the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) and All-On Nigeria showed that there is major improvement in key areas such as agriculture, education, and health when independent solar systems are implemented. These areas need to be further explored in future research to determine the gap in specific areas of the economy and the quantity of solar technology that can be implemented to achieve a meaningful impact.

   8. Blue Hydrogen: A Potential Game Changer for Petroleum Producing Nations

      Kawu Musa Idris-Idah, Abdulkadir Mukhtar, Ayuba Salihu

      Abstract

      Amidst our energy problems, “blue hydrogen” has been commonly repeated as a potential solution for many countries. It would thus be beneficial that an articulate piece exists, enabling a better understanding of this subject. Nigeria (an example of a petroleum producing nation) currently has a population of about 200 million persons and is anticipated to grow to 400 million by 2050. Electricity access is currently restricted to less than its existing 100 million people. Could blue hydrogen be a solution to its current energy poverty battle? In this book chapter, blue hydrogen production is explored; its production from petroleum is discussed in detail. The various types of technologies utilised are explained following detailed research, with each’s limitations stated. The “Blue” in “Blue Hydrogen” stems from the inculcation of Carbon Capture technologies into fossil fuel—hydrogen production and therefore, a CCUS discussion here is also warranted. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), CCUS will be responsible for a 30% decrease in emissions by 2070; CCUS therefore seems a tool that could mitigate climate change in petroleum producing nations and beyond. The Singaporean Hydrogen Strategy is finally discussed with the belief that it contains lessons that would be useful for these nations. This research shows that Blue Hydrogen could be a game changer for such nations if the journey commences appropriately. The chapter, although centred on petroleum producing nations, contains a slight hint of Nigeria: an actual example aimed at “injecting more life” into the chapter’s content.

3. Energy Transition, Energy Efficiency, and Energy Utilisation

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Circularity and Environmental Sustainability of Geothermal Energy

      Jingyi Li, Alejandro Gallego-Schmid

      Abstract

      This chapter examines the effectiveness of the adoption of circular economy (CE) framework into geothermal power generation to boost life cycle environmental sustainability. With geothermal energy expected to grow by 251% by the year 2030, tapping into this consistent energy source is crucial for the 2050 net-zero target. Nevertheless, challenges such as limited natural hydrothermal reservoirs and high exploration costs persist. The chapter evaluates the ‘repurpose’ strategy of CE, focusing on converting abandoned oil and gas wells (AOGWs) for geothermal power generation. Three systems, repurposed two completely AOGWs (R-GEO_double, a single completely AOGW (R-GEO_single), and semi-AOGWs (R-GEO_semi), are analysed against a business-as-usual geothermal plant, GEO_bau. Results indicate that these systems can decrease their climate change potential by 15%, 23%, and 34% respectively. Compared to GEO_bau, R-GEO_semi emerges as the most promising, though its advantage over GEO_bau is slight due to limited electricity generation. The effectiveness of repurposed systems largely depends on the choice of AOGWs, especially those with high water content. While R-GEO_double and R-GEO_single offer climate change mitigation benefits, their overall environmental sustainability still necessitates systematic optimisation. This chapter illuminates the potential for transitioning the fossil fuel sector to renewable energy through the use of AOGWs.

   3. Renewable Energy Potential, Production and Utilisation in Africa

      Joseph X. F. Ribeiro, Edward Antwi, Mahmoud Saleh Shahreza, Eni Oko, Ibrahim Albayati, Ahmed Elseragy, Tracy Asamoah-Boateng, Aliyu M. Aliyu

      Abstract

      This chapter delves into the crucial realm of renewable energy production and utilisation in Africa and addresses the pressing need to leverage Africa's abundant renewable resources for economic growth, energy security, and environmental preservation. This research aims to underscore the transformative potential of renewable energy adoption in Africa and to examine the multifaceted implications for both policy and practice. Utilising a comprehensive review of existing literature and data, this chapter offers insights into the current state of renewable energy in Africa, emphasizing its impact on energy access, job creation, and climate change mitigation. The findings demonstrate that renewable energy not only addresses energy poverty but also drives economic development and contributes to global sustainability goals. Moreover, the research reveals the significance of clear policy frameworks, innovative financing mechanisms, and community engagement in facilitating the transition to renewable energy sources. Ultimately, this chapter underscores the pivotal role of renewable energy in Africa's sustainable development journey. It highlights the imperative for policymakers, investors, and stakeholders to collaborate in unlocking the continent's renewable energy potential, fostering economic growth, and safeguarding the environment. This research offers valuable insights for both practitioners and researchers, advocating for a cleaner, more equitable, and resilient energy future in Africa.

   4. Resource Options and Challenges for Sustainable Aviation Fuels

      Fatima Usman Madugu, Amanda R. Lea-Langton

      Abstract

      The aviation industry is a major contributor to global warming, emitting 5% of the world's greenhouse gases (GHG) and 22% of transport sector CO₂ emissions every year (Müller-Casseres et al., 2022). To reduce the environmental impact, researchers are investigating sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels that can be used with existing infrastructure. Compared with other forms of high-volume transportation such as trains and shipping, aviation has more stringent constraints due to fuel volume, fuel weight and safety requirements. Some of the potential fuel solutions that are being considered include biofuels, e-fuels, hydrogen and ammonia. These fuels can potentially be produced from renewable sources such as renewable electricity, wastes, and biomass. However, each of these fuels has its advantages and disadvantages in terms of net GHG emissions, resource availability, cost, efficiency, lifecycle emissions and compatibility with current aircraft engines. According to a report by the Royal Society, 2022, producing sustainable aviation fuels to supply the UK’s ‘net zero’ ambitions would require enormous quantities of UK agricultural land or renewable electricity to keep flying at today’s levels. For example, using biofuels made from energy crops would need around half of UK agricultural land, which could adversely affect food security and biodiversity. On the other hand, producing enough green hydrogen or ammonia would require 2.4–3.4 times the UK’s 2020 renewable electricity generation, which could compete with other sectors that also need clean energy (Royal Society, 2023c). Synthetic fuels, which are made by capturing carbon dioxide from the air and combining it with hydrogen, would require five to eight times the UK’s 2020 renewable electricity generation (Royal Society, 2023a). This Chapter evaluates the options available and analyses the challenges that are presented by switching to lower carbon fuels. The work evaluates the challenges of resource availability and sustainable fuels opportunities in terms of their technical feasibility, economic viability, environmental performance, and infrastructure requirements. Finally, the key research gaps are identified that need to be addressed to accelerate their development and deployment.

   5. Assessment of Natural Gas Capturing and Utilisation Techniques: A Nigerian Case-Study

      Ndubuisi Uchechukwu Okereke

      Abstract

      This chapter provides highlights for available natural gas capturing techniques and a novel approach for capturing gas for utilisation and reduction of associated emission. The pros and cons of the existing methods for natural gas utilisation were also identified as part of this study. A novel and sustainable approach to capture natural gas from oil producing assets both offshore and onshore were captured as part of this work. The study was focused on developing a contemporary approach for the capturing of at least over 45% of the gas flare rate within Nigeria by developing a viable system for enhancing the capture of carbon dioxide (CO₂). The methodology for the study involved the deployment of local technologies that uses Lithium hydroxide to mop up the CO₂ from the flare stack via a carbon steel locally fabricated device. Key data assessed indicated a significant rate of capturing carbon dioxide of about 0.9 g from 1 g of lithium oxide; indicating about 90% capture rate of the natural gas produced in the case-study via the lithium hydroxide cladded clay supported flare stack. This improved natural gas capture rate and good utilisation option for the natural gas, will enable a solving of the natural gas management problem within Nigeria and indeed Sub-Saharan Africa. This study also recommends CNG, GTL and LNG as viable natural gas utilisation methods that should be fully adapted across Sub-Saharan Africa in view of the available infrastructure and adaptable technologies. GTW will also be important as it will support high level industrialisation. Also, the Lithium per oxide cladded carbon capture tool is recommended for effective carbon capture.

4. Energy Consumption Prediction and Energy Optimisation in Buildings

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Description of the Characteristics of Different Multiple Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) Techniques for the Selection of Passive Energy Consumption Optimisation Strategies in Buildings

      Amirhossein Balali, Akilu Yunusa-Kaltungo

      Abstract

      Passive energy consumption optimisation strategies are apt solutions for tackling the energy issues existing in the building industry. However, the existence of multiple criteria, including social ones, turns the selection of suitable passive strategies a challenging task. This implies the necessity of taking advantage of Multiple Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) techniques to solve the mentioned issues. Despite the mentioned need of using MCDM techniques in selecting suitable passive strategies, there is a lack of a comprehensive study in which a large number of MCDM techniques, their pros and cons, formulas, and step by step application is investigated simultaneously. Therefore, this study focused on the mentioned gap to generate a comprehensive study which is valuable for not only the researchers within the field of passive energy consumption optimisation strategy, but also for the scholars within the fields of energy and decision-making.

   3. Investigating the Potential of Evaluation Based on Distance from Average Solution (EDAS) Method in Crisp and Fuzzy Environments for Solving Building Energy Consumption Optimisation Multiple Attribute Decision-Making (MADM) Problems

      Amirhossein Balali, Akilu Yunusa-Kaltungo

      Abstract

      Sustainable selection of the best energy consumption optimisation strategies for buildings, whether active or passive, is a complex task due to the existence of several criteria. Distance from Average Solution (EDAS) Method is one of the most recent Multiple Attribute Decision-Making (MADM) techniques which has been widely used in many disciplines. However, it has been rarely used for solving MADM problems within the area of building energy optimisation, especially selecting suitable energy consumption optimisation strategies. In order to fulfil the mentioned gap within the body of knowledge, this study aimed to assess the strength of EDAS method in comparison to other MADM techniques in both crisp and fuzzy environments, especially for selecting suitable energy consumption optimisation strategies, using secondary and primary data. Based on the obtained results, EDAS achieved the score of 4.46/5 which clearly illustrated its suitability for solving MADM problems within the studied field. Also, the most popular types of fuzzy EDAS, namely Type-1 Fuzzy EDAS and Interval Type-2 Fuzzy EDAS, were investigated and their step-by-step application procedures for solving an MADM problem were explained in detail. The outcome of this study is valuable for the decision makers within the area of building energy consumption optimisation. Moreover, other scholars investigating MADM problems in other disciplines can also apply the proposed methodology of this study to investigate the suitability of other MADM techniques for solving MADM problems within their field of study.

   4. Optimisation of Design for PCM-Enhanced Buildings Through Parametric Modelling and Multi-objective Methodology

      Hongzhi Cui, Ziqing Xu, Yan Liang, Haibin Yang

      Abstract

      Phase change materials (PCM) are gaining recognition for their ability to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions in buildings by effectively regulating indoor temperature fluctuations. However, the intricate interplay of factors encompassing PCM dosage, envelope design, and climatic conditions significantly influences the thermal performance of PCM-enhanced buildings. Additionally, the initial investment cost of PCM remains a primary consideration. Therefore, this paper introduces an innovative approach that combines parametric modelling with multi-objective optimization methodology to address diverse design objectives for PCM-enhanced buildings, including optimal operational energy consumption (BOEC), optimal life cycle economic benefit (LCEB), and optimal life cycle carbon reduction (LCCR). The research findings indicate that optimal design solutions can be tailored to specific climatic regions for applying PCM-enhanced envelopes. Comparative analysis against a reference building reveals noteworthy trends, with Shenzhen City exhibiting the highest energy efficiency rate at 38.54%, while Kunming City records a lowest rate of 26.15%. Interestingly, Shenyang City demonstrates the highest values in terms of optimal LCEB and optimal LCCR, with figures of 1346.84 CNY/m² and 3364.95 kg CO₂·e/m², respectively.

   5. Unpacking Factors Behind Green Wall Adoption in Sustainable Buildings

      Abishek Rauniyar, Atul Kumar Singh, Cise Unluer, Mohamed Abadi, Saeed Banihashemi, Saeed Reza Mohandes

      Abstract

      This study investigates the critical factors influencing the adoption of green walls within the construction sector. With a growing emphasis on sustainable building practices, understanding the factors that shape the adoption of innovative solutions like green walls is crucial. A notable research gap exists in identifying and assessing the critical factors influencing green wall adoption. To address this gap, a systematic literature review was conducted to identify and evaluate the main 12 critical factors. To gauge the perceived importance of these factors, a quantitative survey was administered to 163 industry professionals with diverse roles in green wall projects in Hong Kong. The study unveiled insights into the relationships and groupings among critical factors using inferential statistical analyses and an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). The findings emphasise the multi-dimensional nature of green wall adoption decisions. From the EFA results, five components for the classification of identified factors were obtained, including “installation challenges”, “economic and adoption”, “economic and cost guidelines”, “structural and environmental”, and “fungal and pest infestation”. Of all the factors grouped in these clusters, “Maintenance Expenses” emerged as the most critical one. This research contributes to guiding decision-makers, practitioners, and policymakers in navigating the complexities of green wall adoption and the advancement of sustainable building practices.

   6. Designing for a Low-Cost Low-Energy Building in Sub-Saharan Africa Using a Simulation-Based Approach: The Case of a Residential Building in Ghana

      Michael Nii Addy, Naa Adjeley Ashiboe-Mensah Doamekpor, Titus Ebenezer Kwofie, Collins Eli Agar, Bright Ateko, Fatima Eshun

      Abstract

      The paucity of building demand-side energy efficiency policies in countries in sub-Saharan Africa has resulted in buildings designed without recourse to energy efficiency. Urbanization and increasing populations point to a further increase in building energy. As a developing economy, Ghana’s residential and industrial demand for electricity has long been relatively low, although increasing. This paper evaluates the energy consumption of a typical residential building in a warm humid climate and identifies low-cost energy-efficient options for improvement. To achieve this, a residential building located in Kumasi was selected. Using monthly electricity bills and user behaviour captured through an unstructured interview, the average energy consumption of the building was analysed. The building was subsequently modelled using the Rhino-grasshopper software. The energy efficiency was then analysed in terms of building design, performance envelope, building operation, and thermal comfort. Various low-cost solutions to reduce building energy consumption were explored. The findings showed that a potential energy consumption reduction in the range of 10–25% is achievable. The originality of the study is anchored in using energy simulation to identify low-cost energy-efficient building options that enhance the performance of the buildings within the sub-region.

   7. Overview of Key Methodologies for Predicting Energy Consumption in Buildings

      Qingyao Qiao, Akilu Yunusa-Kaltungo, Yue Zhai, Ashraf Alghanmi

      Abstract

      In recent years, the building sector emerges as a major contributor to global energy consumption, accounting for a significant portion of the world’s overall energy use and plays a leading role in global greenhouse gas emissions. This has raised concerns about the environmental impact and sustainability of current building practices. However, accurately predicting building energy consumption remains a complex and challenging task due to the intricate interactions between various factors such as building design, materials, systems, and occupant behavior. In light of this, the present chapter aims to offer an introductory overview of the contemporary trends in building energy consumption, as well as an in-depth examination of the diverse methodologies and approaches that have been extensively employed by researchers in building energy consumption prediction. A critical analysis of the procedure in implementing energy consumption prediction, the strengths and weaknesses of each approach will be provided, along with a discussion of the key challenges faced by the industry and potential future directions for research and development in the realm of energy-efficient and sustainable buildings. The chapter revealed an exponential increase trend in annual publication in building energy consumption prediction. Artificial intelligence (AI) methods have played predominant role and been extensively applied to tackle a variety of challenges. This chapter will serve as a valuable resource for scholars, practitioners, and policymakers seeking to gain a deeper understanding of the factors influencing building energy consumption and the strategies that can be employed to reduce its environmental footprint.

   8. District Cooling System for Singapore’s Residential Cooling

      Huizhe Liu, Jiun Yeu Lim, Po-Yen Lai, Zhengwei Ge, Bianca Wint Hnin Thet, Wee Shing Koh

      Abstract

      District cooling systems (DCS) are important in tropical urban areas with high cooling demand and expectations for indoor comfort. Accurate prediction of DCS cooling loads is essential for system sizing and design of thermal storage. Cooling load estimation depends on many factors, including climate, internal heat gain, and building fabric. Our chapter specifically examines the impact of occupant behaviour and microclimate dynamics on cooling load profiles for Singapore’s residential cooling. These factors should be considered in the design and implementation of residential DCS to improve their efficiency.

5. Key Technologies for Smart Energy Management

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Security of Blockchain-Based Applications: A Case of Distributed Energy Systems

      Olamide Jogunola, Bamidele Adebisi, Thokozani Shongwe, Akilu Yunusa-Kaltungo

      Abstract

      Advancement in technology has resulted in an increase in the use of blockchain technology in distributed systems including in energy management. While blockchain technology is conceived to be secure, recent research has evidenced that the underlying blockchain processes like smart contracts are vulnerable to cyberattacks. Thus, this chapter aims to review the security landscape of blockchain-distributed applications with specific reference to distributed energy management. This aim is achieved by presenting a systematic review of blockchain and smart contracts usage in distributed energy systems, followed by their security challenges and vulnerabilities. The review concludes that a growing effort has been evidenced in the literature to adopt blockchain solutions for the security and privacy of energy management systems, but little effort has been observed in the appraisal of the security attacks on blockchain and smart contracts in the space of energy management systems. While some recent articles on other cyber-physical applications have considered the security implications of blockchain and smart contracts, there are still numerous open vulnerabilities, especially in an energy management system that requires immediate action, such as double spending and implementation errors. Specific areas in energy management where these vulnerabilities could be mitigated are desirable. Future work will explore solutions to these open vulnerabilities for a secure smart energy management system.

   3. Smart Energy System from Socio-technical Perspectives: A Semi Systematic Literature Review

      Yue Zhai, Lei Zhang, Jiaqing Huang, Qingyao Qiao

      Abstract

      Smart Energy System (SES) is seen as a solution to mitigate environmental degradation and energy supply challenges. The primary aim of this study is to explore the interactions between social and technical subsystems within SES to achieve joint optimisations. The chapter employs a semi-systematic literature review via searches conducted within the Scopus database, due to its comprehensiveness and multidisciplinarity. The study reveals that while technological aspects of SES have received significant attention, the interplay between technology and society remains relatively understudied. SES has the potential to revolutionise energy systems but faces challenges related to equity, data privacy, interoperability, grid integration, and adaptability. The chapter underscores the need for a holistic approach that considers both technical and social subsystems in SES development. Collaboration between the two domains can lead to joint optimisations, enhancing SES efficiency, transparency, stability, sustainability, security, and privacy.

   4. From Vision to Reality: Addressing Renewable Energy Infrastructure Challenges in Kuwait

      Shaikha AlSanad

      Abstract

      Kuwait has set ambitious targets, aiming to derive 15% of its energy from renewable sources by 2030, reduce domestic energy consumption by 12% by 2035, and curtail CO₂ emissions by 33% by 2035. The Shagaya Renewable Energy Park, a colossal project boasting a 3.2 GW capacity, assumes a pivotal role in this energy transition. However, mega projects like Shagaya come with their unique set of challenges. In this paper, we aim to identify the major challenges encountered by stakeholders in Kuwait’s construction sector while executing the planning and execution of mega renewable energy infrastructure projects. We have employed a qualitative study by conducting unstructured and semi-structured interviews. We have highlighted various challenges faced by Kuwait as it transitions towards renewable energy infrastructure. These challenges span technical, supply chain, social, environmental, financial, and political domains, identified through the analysis of qualitative data. Kuwait, a prominent player in the oil and gas sector, is actively working to diversify its energy sources and mitigate environmental impacts in response to global climate concerns. This chapter meticulously explores these specific hurdles, underscoring their significance not just for Kuwait but also for the broader global transition towards cleaner energy sources. Overcoming these issues is imperative to fully harness the potential of such initiatives and navigate the distinctive local circumstances and opportunities. The implications of this research are extensive, providing invaluable insights for policymakers, industry professionals, investors, local communities, and environmental advocates. Rooted in empirical evidence, these stakeholders can engage in constructive dialogues, fostering innovation and collaboration to propel Kuwait towards a more sustainable and resilient energy landscape. As Kuwait embarks on its journey towards a greener energy future, aligning with global climate goals, this research assumes paramount relevance. Furthermore, Kuwait’s experiences hold valuable lessons for nations grappling with similar challenges. This study, anchored in the Shagaya renewable energy project, offers foundational knowledge for sustainable infrastructure development and underscores the shared responsibility of nations in preserving the environment on a global scale. It signifies a collaborative effort towards a more sustainable and equitable world, emphasizing the collective endeavour to combat climate change and ensure a sustainable future for all.

6. Maintenance and Asset Management of Energy Systems

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Emerging Trends in Optimisation for Reliability and Maintenance of Photovoltaic Systems

      Aisha Sa’ad, Aime C. Nyoungue, Zied Hajej, Marie Sawadogo

      Abstract

      The development of renewable energy especially solar and wind energy over the recent years has gained global attention as an alternative method of generating energy experiencing exceptional growth in its production. Like any standard production system, solar energy generation components are subject to random failure resulting to production and supply of demand interruptions. The absence of a suitable maintenance plan is identified as one of the major causes of production failures. The aim of this study is to define a joint production and maintenance strategy. The strategy adopted consists of selecting components on which maintenance should be performed on during preventive maintenance time. While the criterion for the selection is based on reliability of the components by imposing reliability threshold. A perfect maintenance strategy is applied on the selected components to minimize the maintenance downtime and maximize reliability of the system. The methodology we developed entails solving the problem of energy production and maintenance optimization simultaneously optimization by using machine learning method: artificial neural network (ANN) in order to satisfy a fluctuating energy demand over a finite horizon. A one-year reliability assessment was performed to determine the system reliability. It was observed that the system reliability decreases with increase in the system capacity where it is 79.7% for 100 kW plant and 63.7% for 200 kW plant. Consequently, the optimal maintenance plan (N*) is found to be increasing with increase in the system capacity: N* = 2, 3 and 6 for100 kW, 1000 kW and 2500 kW plants respectively. This also implies that the failure rate of the system will be reduced.

   3. Fault Detection and Diagnosis as a Predictor of Energy Consumption in Special-Purpose Buildings

      Ashraf Alghanmi, Yunusa-Kaltungo Akilu, Qingyao Qiao

      Abstract

      Faults in building equipment generally result from inefficient operation and poor preventative maintenance, resulting in higher energy consumption, shorter equipment lifetime, and an uncomfortable indoor environment. Thus, improving maintenance procedures is one of the essential aspects of reducing the building energy consumption gap and enhancing occupant satisfaction. In this context, the applications of fault detection and diagnosis (FDD) approaches have drawn the attention of scientists through utilising operational data and applying artificial intelligence (AI) to develop sophisticated algorithms to implement the FDD work. The data-driven FDD techniques depend primarily on operational data and do not demand a thorough knowledge of the system’s background; however, a significant amount of data is needed. Thus, this study proposes a data-driven FDD strategy for recognising various sorts of building system faults by developing a baseline model that can be utilised to monitor building energy performance. As a result, an ensemble forecasting approach (XGBoost) was used at the whole-building scale in a public building in a hot and humid region. The XGBoost exhibited an outstanding ability to forecast energy usage with a relatively small RMSE (around 0.33) as well as excellent fault detection accuracy for most fault scenarios even with low fault severity, with an average accuracy of 85%, with one notable exception of the dirty filter fault, which was identified with an average detection accuracy of 73%.

   4. An Asset Criticality Study of an Energy System’s Portfolio—A Practical Application on a Gas Transmission Pipeline Network

      Lar English, Jane Haswell, Brian Leahy, Nicholas Wachira Maina

      Abstract

      The ability of a company to delineate between the criticality of their assets is an essential part of asset management. The authors have drafted a chapter that details a real-world application of methodologies which determine asset criticality on a gas transmission pipeline network. Historically, Gas Networks Ireland (GNI) have applied a criticality ranking to pipelines which is used to set priority for proactive and reactive maintenance activities. A new method for the application of a scoring system which supports the criticality ranking and is consistent across the GNI transmission asset base was required. To that end, a calculated scoring system, based on hazard, for pipelines has been developed. This scoring system is informed by semi-quantitative and qualitative risk scoring models and is shown to provide a reasonable representation of safety risk levels. The calculation and the alignment of scores to a criticality ranking of 1–10 for pipelines are described in this chapter. While this chapter features data from a specific transmission network, the approach is agnostic and can be implemented by network operators regardless of the location.

   5. A Reliability-Based Appraisal of the Cultural Challenges of Developing Asset Management Systems in the Energy Industry: A Case of a Leading Player in Argentina

      Gustavo Rivera, Akilu Yunusa-Kaltungo

      Abstract

      Until alternatives to fossil fuels can be substantially scaled up, Oil & Gas (O&G) energy production will continue to be the main actor as an energy provider to world energy needs. Societies across the globe, hence, will have to coexist with carbon-dependent energy generation for years to come. Because of this, the way energy-related activities are managed becomes of utmost importance to address issues like climate change, air pollution and energy access to millions of people. Due to a much-required need for sustainable growth, energy management is especially relevant for the O&G industry in developing countries, where an important percentage of physical assets have been in operation for many years past their useful life. Energy management and asset management, therefore, have turned into inseparable challenges to be addressed by the industry. Even though managing physical assets is a well-developed discipline of proven effectiveness supported by many years of use in asset-intensive industries, successful performance of Asset Management Systems (AMS) depends not only on structured and methodical approaches, but also on a culture environment which favours and encourages the technical components. To diagnose and incidentally improve the way these elements interact, and based on a combined methodology which applies a group of reliability and decision-making tools, this chapter describes the culture-related challenges that the onshore upstream segment’s asset management sector of a large, integrated Oil & Gas company faces in the process of implementing its AMS. Results show that there is, in fact, a very strong dependency of AMS performance on the cultural environment, both organizational and societal, and that a set of reliability-derived recommendations for improved interaction may be consistently ranked by using structured decision-making techniques.

7. Correction to: Blue Hydrogen: A Potential Game Changer for Petroleum Producing Nations

   Kawu Musa Idris-Idah, Abdulkadir Mukhtar, Ayuba Salihu