Land and Water Degradation in Ethiopia

The world is facing an unprecedented level of land and water degradation, the two most important resources for human survival and proper functioning of the environment. As the population grows, the need for land and water has increased dramatically, leading to deterioration of water quality and loss of land fertility, impacting human health and agricultural productivity. These impacts are pronounced in developing countries where watershed management and farming practices are traditional and poor. These effects are also highly compounded by the impact of climate change increasing the vulnerability of communities to droughts and floods. This book aims to shed light on the complex interplay between climate change and land use change and their implications for land and water degradation in Ethiopia.

Globally, land cover has drastically changed over the last five decades, especially in tropical regions like the Nile basin. Changes in land use and land cover (LULC) have affected the streamflow in the highlands of Ethiopia. Remote sensing data and Geographical Information System (GIS) were used to understand the effect of LULC change dynamics on the streamflow of the Gelda watershed that drains into Lake Tana of the Abay Basin. The Landsat images from 1984, 2000, and 2016 were extracted and analyzed using ENVI and ArcGIS software. Land cover maps were classified using Maximum Likelihood Algorithm classification technique in ENVI 5.3 platform. In the Gelda watershed five major LULC classes (grazing land, agricultural land, forest land, bush land, and built-up area) were found. The streamflow of the watershed was evaluated using SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model. During the study period, it was found that 32.8% of the bush land, forest, and grazing land was changed to agricultural land. This has resulted in streamflow change over the years. The monthly stream flow modeling showed a very good agreement between measured and simulated flows. The results show an increase in the peak flow during the wet months and a decrease in low flows during the dry months. The model results showed that the streamflow characteristics were changed due to the LULC changes during the study period (1984–2016).

Changes in land use and land cover (LULC) modify the hydrological and hydraulic processes of watersheds and can increase surface runoff and streamflow, which results in flooding. Increasing flood events have been observed globally and in Ethiopia, particularly in the Awash River Basin. It has been a chronic problem resulting in loss of human lives and economic damage. The upper Awash River Basin is an area that is highly susceptible to seasonal flooding. Taking a wider view of the interactions between land and water environments within a river basin and the broader socioeconomic and environmental implications of floods, the integrated flood management (IFM) approach provides a sound, conceptual basis to bring about a convergence between land use planning and flood management. Therefore, to implement sustainable IFM plans and mitigate flooding consequences, it is vital to have information and understand the dynamics of the current and future land use and land cover changes in the study area, thus helping to model, quantify and predict the impact of LULC change on flooding. This study assessed the LULC change dynamics of the upper Awash River Basin over the past 20 years (1998–2018) and predicted future land use and land cover change scenarios for 2038 and 2058 using an artificial neural network-based cellular automata (ANN-CA) model. The land use-land cover changes in the upper Awash River Basin were modeled and validated using historical data. Spatial variables such as elevation, population density, distance to rivers and distance to the road network were considered in predicting the land use and land cover for years 2038 and 2058. The historical analysis showed that there was an increase in forest, wetland, and settlement/urban areas by 0.82%, 0.002% and 1.77%, respectively, while there was a decrease in agricultural land, shrub land, grassland, bare land, and water bodies by 2.17%, 0.34%, 0.11%, 0.02%, and 0.15%, respectively. On the other hand, analysis of the predicted LULC change for the coming 20 years (i.e., for 2038) revealed that there will be an increase in settlement/urban areas by 0.24%. However, it also resulted in a decrease in the LULC types of agriculture, forest, shrub land, grassland, wetland, bare land, and water bodies by 0.19%, 0.02%, 0.052%, 0.002%, 0.0008%, 0.0002%, and 0.003%, respectively.

Brachiaria grass species is widely grown in African savannahs and grasslands. It is native to Africa. It is a perennial grass species that is a source of green herbage for livestock during drought seasons. Grass possesses useful agronomic traits, including drought tolerance, resistance to insect pests and phytopathogens, the ability to grow in acidic and low-fertility soils, high nitrogen use efficiency, the capacity to sequester atmospheric carbon, the ability to form an extensive root system useful for water and nutrient acquisition, and the ability to form high biomass useful for organic matter addition, which would in turn improve soil fertility properties. Studies show that grass species adapted to adverse environments and climatic conditions usually form mutualistic microbes that enhance the fitness and productivity of host partners under stress conditions. These are one group of microorganisms called endophytes that support the growth and development of host plants through the production of phytohormones, inhibition of phytopathogens, increased uptake and availability of essential nutrients, production of siderophores, and production of plant growth-regulating compounds and enzymes (ACC deaminase), thereby reducing and alleviating plant stress conditions. The aim of this chapter is to dissect and explore endophytes associated with Brachiaria grass species that are useful for sustainable agriculture and the environment.

Irrigation agriculture plays a valuable role in upholding sustainable food security by enhancing agricultural production. Uneven distribution and shortage of rainfall has resulted in unsustainable food production, leading to food insecurity in Ethiopia. The establishment of irrigation development strategies may have a significant role in reducing the risk posed by uneven distribution of rainfall. This study aims to map suitable land for surface irrigation development in the Abay Basin of the Andassa watershed, Ethiopia, based on a GIS-based multicriteria evaluation (MCE) technique. Biophysical factors (land use and land cover, soil, slope, and river proximity) that significantly affect surface irrigation suitability were considered. Each of these was processed and analyzed for its potential contribution to surface irrigation suitability on a pixel-by-pixel basis. The factors were weighted using a pairwise comparison matrix, and weights were combined using weighted overlay analysis. The analysis results indicated that approximately 60% of the watershed land was highly (9%) and moderately (51%) suitable for surface irrigation. Slope and river proximity were the major limiting factors during the suitability assessment. Of the 60% of suitable land, 70% could be irrigated with the water resource potential of the Andassa River. The remaining 30% of the area needs other means of water harvesting techniques. Future works need to consider soil chemical properties as a determining factor for surface irrigation suitability since this study did not consider these properties as a factor in the overlay analysis.

The objective of this study is to evaluate how soil bunds affect important soil characteristics based on soil reflectance in Kecha, a midland in the Ethiopian Abay River Basin. Soil samples were taken from 48 plots at 0–30 cm depth and were analyzed for soil texture, pH, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (av. P), and potassium (av. K). The reflectance of air-dried, pulverized, and sieved soils was evaluated using a spectroradiometer. Regression modeling was used to locate and forecast changes in soil parameters. Soil properties were identified and predicted using the models, which were evaluated using the coefficient of determination (R²), root mean square error (RMSE), and Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE). The model results showed that soils from bunded plots had less reflection, and the coefficient of determination (R²) was excellent (0.96) and (0.93) for the soil brightness index and reflectance using polynomial and linear models for soil OC and clay contents, respectively. Spectroradiometry could therefore complement conventional soil analysis, but more studies are needed to enhance its prediction performance.

In Ethiopia, accelerated soil erosion and land degradation have become key issues because of the country’s rugged terrain and steep slope topography. The main objective of this study was to identify soil erosion hotspot areas in the Dengora and Meno watersheds using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) and multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) techniques. To achieve this objective, the RUSLE model was used to estimate potential soil losses by utilizing information on soil, land use/cover, topography, and climate data. The MCDA technique considered land use, soil type, topographic wetness index, stream power index, and potential location of gullies. The factors were weighted using a pairwise comparison matrix, and weights were combined using weighted overlay. Based on the RUSLE model, the average annual soil loss of the Dengora and Meno watersheds reached 223.97 and 256.09 tons ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, respectively. In the Dengora watershed, 70.4%, 18.7%, 10.74%, and 0.14% of the total watershed area were slightly, moderately, highly, and very highly sensitive to soil erosion, respectively, while in the Meno watershed, 76%, 16.54%, 7.3%, and 0.14% were the corresponding values. The GIS-based MCDA technique revealed that in the Dengora watershed, 9.7%, 64.5%, 18%, and 7.8% of the total watershed area were highly, moderately, slightly, and currently not sensitive to soil erosion, respectively. The corresponding values for the Meno watershed were 6.1%, 71.3%, 23.23%, and 0.375%, respectively. Based on validation and field-level observations, the MCDA model prediction was more accurate than that of the RUSLE model. Both watersheds were at moderate risk. The bottomlands of the watersheds were highly sensitive to erosion. Therefore, immediate attention should be given to soil and water conservation practices.

Spatial modeling and detailed erosion risk analysis provide robust insights into what must be done and where to improve ecosystems. This chapter presents a comprehensive soil erosion estimate using an empirical modeling approach incorporating remote sensing and GIS techniques in the East Hararghe Zone in Ethiopia. First, we present soil loss rates and dynamics of soil erosion risk during the past three decades (1990–2020). Second, we explore conventional conservation practices that could reduce soil loss in croplands. Annual soil loss was estimated to be 9.16 Mt yr⁻¹ in 1990, 14.02 Mt yr⁻¹ in 2000, 12.20 Mt yr⁻¹ in 2010, and 10.84 Mt yr⁻¹ in 2020, with respective average rates (t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) of 32.94, 50.42, 43.84, and 38.99, showing an 18.37% increase from 1990 to 2020. The results show that over two-thirds of the study area is susceptible to low erosion risk, accounting for a smaller share of the annual soil loss rates. Districts with elevated erosion risk, contributing to more than 80% of soil loss, are situated in mountainous landscapes in the northwest, necessitating priority for soil and water conservation (SWC) practices. Based on standard conservation practices for cropland fields, our key findings show that terracing, strip cropping and contouring could reduce the average erosion rate by 87.05%, 64.66%, and 29.32%, respectively. The research showcases the effectiveness of sustainable land management (SLM) and emphasizes the importance of conducting a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis to develop and execute optimal conservation measures.

The objective of this study is to evaluate channel stability and recommend appropriate mitigation measures for the Mersa River, in Awash River Basin, Ethiopia. The HEC-RAS5.0.7 model was used to evaluate the Mersa riverbed and bank stability, quantify the depth or mass sediment erosion amount, and identify flood-prone areas. To achieve this objective, both field investigations, such as river cross-section data collection and soil sample collection, and experimental tasks, such as sieve analysis and triaxial compression tests, were carried out. The HEC-RAS model simulation with the Yang sediment transport formula is the best fit for the study compared to the Meyer, Peter, and Muller sediment transport methods. For the entire simulation period, the average aggradation was 1.24 m and 0.98 m in the upstream and downstream reaches, respectively, whereas the average degradation in both the upstream and downstream reaches was 1.25 m. The average sediment erosion generated by the Mersa River was 22.47 kt/yr. Both aggradation and degradation were observed in the study reach, but the Mersa River reach was more affected by erosion than deposition. Mersa riverbank stability and toe erosion assessed by BSTEM of HEC-RAS were safe, and the bank toe neither aggraded nor degraded in response to the flow. Additionally, the water surface of the Mersa River was computed using steady flow analysis, showing that floods over the top above the bank and adjacent area (Mersa town) were affected by floods, and the reality was also true. It was shown that there was farmland loss and property damage due to floods. Finally, this investigation showed that the channel bed was unstable while the bank was stable. Different stabilization measures, such as the Gabion bank, check dam, and drop structure, were recommended to prevent flood-prone areas from experiencing floods and to control channel bed instability.

This study demonstrated the trend of climate and the decadal dynamics of the crop diversity in the Gumara watershed, Ethiopia. The Gridded Satellite and observed historical climate data from the period of 1987–2016 and the crop-climate history were the data sources. The Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slopes estimator were used for trend analysis. Ratings from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) crop-climate requirements were used for crop diversity dynamics. The results indicated a nonsignificant increase in decadal Kiremit rainfall of 27 mm at Weyna Dega and 43 mm at Dega agroecological zones. The Kiremit season temperature variables exhibit statistically significant increasing trends in all zones. In general, decadal increments of 0.4 °C for minimum and maximum temperatures and 0.5 °C for mean temperature were recorded in the watershed. The recent period of decadal increment in maximum temperature negatively affected most selected indigenous crops at the lower elevation and helped to move the crops forward to the higher elevation. The study revealed that improved crop varieties should be introduced according to the watershed agroecological zones. The traditional agroecological zone classification system of Ethiopia must be systematically updated. In addition, to detect detailed information on crop-climate associations and the effects of climate variability on crop diversity, yearly analysis rather than decadal analysis is suggested for governments and future research.

Ethiopia has an abundance of renewable energy resources, such as hydro, wind, geothermal, solar, and biomass. Access to sustainable energy services, on the other hand, is a major challenge for its people. The country is one of the 20 most impoverished countries in terms of clean energy access, with approximately 46% of the population without electricity. Ethiopia's government is focused on utilizing the country’s renewable energy resources. Hydropower is the primary renewable energy source that has been identified for this purpose. The Upper Blue Nile Basin (UBNB) is one of Ethiopia's 12 river basins with massive hydropower potential. It accounts for a significant portion of the country’s current electricity consumption. As hydropower is rainfall dependent, its long-term viability, under climate change, is highly uncertain in the future. Hence, there is a need to focus on diversifying renewable energy sources in addition to hydropower in the UBNB. The goal of this study is to investigate the suitability of wind farms in the UBNB using a multicriteria decision method as well as geographic information system and to determine the energy potential of suitable areas. Wind speed, slope, land use/land cover, distances from grids, roads, urban and protected areas were considered when determining suitable wind farms. Of the total area of the basin, only 1,498.69 km² (approximately 1% of the basin) was found to be highly suitable. Wind speed data from ten automatic weather station (AWS) sites at 15-min intervals were obtained from the National Meteorology Institute of Ethiopia (NMIE) for the purpose of estimating wind power potential over a four-year period (2017–2020). After performing vigorous quality control checks for internal consistency and technical wind sensor problems, the AWS wind speed data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and MATLAB software. The highest wind power density was recorded at Wogeltena and Gatira, with wind power densities of 227.56 and 216.50 W/m², respectively, at a turbine height of 50 m. There is a noticeable seasonal difference in wind power density production. Power densities were higher during the dry and short rainy seasons than during the wet season. As a result, it is reasonable to consider wind as a viable supplement to hydropower in the UBNB. The most promising sites are in the northeastern parts of the study area. As a result, these areas may be considered viable for grid-connected and stand-alone wind energy applications. However, most of the wind speed data in this study had short durations and were insufficient for estimating wind energy potential at large scales. Furthermore, the meteorological stations were primarily installed for weather forecasting purposes, and their location might not be optimal for wind energy purposes. Therefore, future research should concentrate on identifying optimal wind energy-producing areas in the region. Furthermore, different wind speed measuring tools, such as taller wind masts than the AWS wind speeds, are recommended for further wind energy potential investigations.

Rainfed agriculture is the mainstay of the majority of livelihoods in Ethiopia. However, the rainfall resources on which agriculture depends vary greatly in space and time, affecting cropping patterns and productivity. Agricultural drought during the crop-growing season is the leading challenge to agricultural production in Ethiopia. As a result, this study examines the climate, specifically rainfall and agricultural droughts associated with the wheat-growing season, in Ethiopia's southern region, with a focus on the Hadiya zone. Hence, from the perspective of an agriculturalist, reliable start and end dates of the rainy season were established, and the rainfall pattern was examined using a modified Mann–Kendall test. To characterize drought events, the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was used. The Markov chain model was used to assess the dry and wet spell conditions. At Fonko, the rainy season typically begins on April 23 and ends on October 30, while at Hosanna, it begins on April 14 and ends on November 1. In the study area, wheat's crop water requirements ranged from 483.6 to 512.2 mm during the growth season, and they were unaffected by the planting date. The chance of a dry period increases throughout the short rainy season. For both stations, there was a higher frequency of moderate drought episodes throughout both wet seasons, followed by severe drought. Supplemental irrigation is essential in the area, especially during the most precarious periods of crop growth. Mulching and other in situ and ex situ moisture conservation methods must be used as part of any moisture management strategy.

Determining water consumption using an appropriate water consumption method is fundamental in ensuring future domestic water security. Many water consumption projection studies, especially in developing countries, are performed using the traditional approach of forecasting using population and per capita consumption. In this study, we developed a new water consumption projection model for Addis Ababa by considering socioeconomic and climate change factors. The model was developed using multilinear regression statistical analysis to select the most significant factors affecting domestic water consumption. The results show that socioeconomic development, specifically rapid population growth, is the most significant factor driving water consumption in Addis Ababa.

In Ethiopia, it is crucial to utilize water management strategies such as mulching and deficit irrigation that use less water per unit of a product to address the water challenges that the country faces. This chapter presents findings on the effects of deficit irrigation (DI) and mulching materials on the reduction in the blue water footprint (WFb) of maize. The experiment has 12 treatments comprising four levels of water application depths (50 (DI4), 60 (DI3), 80 (DI2), and 100% (DI1) of the crop water requirement) and three types of mulching (no mulch (NM), wheat straw (SM), and white transparent polyethylene materials (PM)). The experiment was laid in a randomized complete block design with three replications in factorial arrangements. Water applied per irrigation event and soil moisture contents just before and 24 h after each irrigation event were monitored throughout the season. The data were analyzed using the R statistical package. The moisture monitoring results showed that lower evapotranspiration (ET) was recorded in the plastic mulch treatments and higher ET in the no-mulch treatments. The variance analysis showed that mulching and DI significantly affected the WFb and grain yield of maize; soil temperature (soil T^o) and hundred kernel weight (HKwt) were affected by mulch application only. However, there were no interaction effects between the two factors. The PM treatment resulted in the highest grain yield (8.17 tons ha⁻¹) and the lowest WFb (794.74 m³ ton⁻¹). The PM treatment also gave the best HKwt of 34.0 g, which was 6.56% higher than that of the NM treatment. A significantly higher soil T^o was recorded at the application of PM because much of the heat is retained by PM. The DI treatments showed that DI4 gave the lowest WFb (720.31 m³ ton⁻¹), which had a 38.93% water consumption reduction, followed by DI3. The results showed that there was a significant grain yield difference among DI1, DI3, and DI4. The application of DI1 produced the largest grain yields (7.74 tons ha^–1), while the application of DI4 had the smallest yield (6.59 tons ha^–1), which was 14.86% lower than that of DI1. Therefore, the application of 60% ETc DI and plastic mulch could be an important practice for blue water footprint reduction in this study area and areas with similar agroecology.

Despite making up two-thirds of our planet, water remains one of the most contentious resource. Transboundary watercourses, in particular, require analytical scrutiny because they involve competing interests as shared resources among riparian states. Practices of dealing with these competing interests are rarely smooth and differ across basins and time. Per international law and organizational structure, this chapter compares transboundary watercourse management practices of the Euphrates-Tigris (ET) and Nile River basins. The chapter examines whether joint institutional basin arrangements are in place in these basins and whether exemplary practices from the ET River basin could be useful in dealing with gaps observed in the Nile River basin management and vice versa. While scrutinizing these foregoing issues, the chapter explores three areas in the ET and Nile River basins management. First, it highlights the governing legal frameworks of both basins per international laws. Then it addresses their administrative structures per objective organizational models and finally explores their likeness and difference as well as their gaps and better experiences to be adopted from each river basin.

Rapid population growth and diversified activities have increased the utilization of groundwater resources for domestic and industrial processes and irrigation in the Upper Awash Basin. The objective of this study was to identify prospective groundwater zones (GWPZs) in the Upper Awash Basin by utilizing remote sensing and auxiliary data. Thematic layers of the parameters that influence groundwater occurrence and movement in the study area were produced using satellite images and other auxiliary data. Accordingly, eight thematic maps, geomorphology, geology, slope, rainfall, lineament density, land use/land cover (LULC), drainage density, and soil, were prepared and transformed into raster datasets using ArcGIS 10.7. Weights were allocated to theme layers based on their significance in the generation of groundwater potential in the study area. The AHP pairwise comparison matrix was utilized to calculate the hierarchical rank of each parameter, and the final normalized weights of each layer were estimated. The layers were then integrated using a weighted overlay technique, and a GWPZ map was produced. The study area’s GWPZ map was classified into five categories: excellent (0.60%), very good (54.21%), good (32.21%), medium (12.73%), and poor (0.25%). Finally, to evaluate the validity of the results, the GWPZ map was verified using data from 201 boreholes distributed throughout the basin. The validation result confirmed that 82.3% of high-yield boreholes correspond to “very good” category of the GWPZ. Therefore, the applied method provides acceptable result that can help future planning and sustainable utilization of the groundwater resources in the Upper Awash Basin.

In this study, the hydraulic performance of the existing water supply and distribution network of Kombolcha town was analyzed by using WaterGEMS. The WaterGEMS model was used for automated calibration and analysis of the hydraulic parameters of water supply distribution systems. At selected nodes, the developed model was calibrated to reduce the difference between the measured and simulated pressures. The water supply coverage of the town was only 69.4%, which is extremely low when compared to the country’s urban water supply coverage standard. The water demand was determined to be 50 L/day, which is less than the community’s actual water consumption. The water balance analysis revealed that 67.1% of water production is billed quantity and 32.9% is nonrevenue water (NRW). The results from the simulation of the existing water supply distribution system revealed that during peak hour demand, 23.1% of the junctions have low pressure (15 m H₂O), and 67.4% of the junctions have high pressure (> 60 m H₂O). The hydraulic performance analysis indicated that 83.5% and 24% of the total pipes have velocities below 0.6 m/s at minimum and peak demands, respectively. The study concluded that the hydraulic performance of Kombolcha’s existing water supply distribution systems is below expectations. As a result, high pressures in the distribution system should be managed with pressure-reducing valves. Furthermore, low pressure should be improved by making existing borehole rehabilitation more efficient to meet the town’s peak water demand.

Rooftop rainwater harvesting has been used worldwide as an alternative source of water supply for many people. In view of this, the aim of the study is to assess the potential of rooftop rainwater harvesting as an alternative source of water supply for Wachemo University. Twenty years of rainfall data were analyzed to determine the average monthly and annual rainfall potential of the study area. The possible volume of water that could be harvested from selected rooftops at Wachemo University was quantified using the rational method. The Ripple Mass Curve method was also applied to determine the harvestable rooftop rainwater storage capacity for the study area. The water sampling points and building digitization were made using Google Earth and ArcGIS 10.3 tools. The quality of the rooftop rainwater was examined as per the standard method for the examination of water and wastewater quality. The results demonstrated that the maximum amount of water that could be harvested was 102,268 m³ per year from a 107,587 m² rooftop area with an average annual rainfall of 1188.0 mm. The harvested rainfall from the rooftops could cover approximately 51% of the average annual water demand of the university. The Ripple Mass Curve analysis indicated that storage capacity of 8493.7 m³ was required to harvest rooftop water in the study area. The water quality of the rooftop examination was found to be within the permissible limit for drinking water quality requirements, except for the bacteriological parameters. The cost analysis demonstrated that a total of 6,937,200 ETB (128,466 USD) was required to install rainwater harvesting systems for 94 buildings inside Wachemo University main campus. The study concluded that rooftop rainwater harvesting is a promising alternative solution to solve the water scarcity problem and ensure a continual source of non-potable water at Wachemo University.

The textile industry is one of the significant consumers of dyestuff, chemicals, and water. As a result, a large amount of wastewater is generated. The wastewater discharged from the textile dyeing industry is challenging to treat using conventional treatment methods as these effluents are complex, toxic to microorganisms, and recalcitrant to biodegradation. Limited studies have demonstrated that the dual-stage electrocoagulation–electrooxidation (EC–EO) process is an efficient technology for eliminating different pollutants. However, the full potential of this technology to address the challenges faced by the textile industry in developing countries like Ethiopia has yet to be realized. Additionally, the pressing global issue of energy crisis and climate change calls for the use of renewable energy sources to power this technology. Therefore, to address this problem, a dual-stage solar-powered electrocoagulation (EC) and electrooxidation (EO) process has been evaluated for its capability to remove color, total organic carbon (TOC), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Aluminum (Al) and iridium oxide coated on titanium (IrO₂/Ti) were selected as anode/cathode for EC and EC–EO experiments, respectively. The results were evaluated based on the interaction effects of operating parameters of the treatment methods on the percentage of COD, TOC, and color removal. The dual-stage EC–EO process obtained 97% COD, TOC, and color removal efficiency. In addition, the results of the combined spectroscopy analysis confirm the complete degradation of organic contaminants to carbon dioxide and water. In addition, the optimum operating conditions have been tested for real industrial wastewater effluents and have shown excellent performance in removing pollutants. Furthermore, the optimal working conditions were also evaluated using direct solar modules and showed comparable removal performance compared to using conventional electricity.

This study shows the physio-chemical suitability of high discharge springs for domestic, livestock, and irrigation use in the Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and pH were measured during field investigation and in laboratory analysis. The results showed that the mean concentrations of cations (Na, Ca, K and Mg) were 14.66, 20.96, 5.32 and 12.35 mg/l, respectively, while those of anions (Cl, HCO₃, SO₄ and NO₃) were 5.08, 154.67, 1.84 and 12.17 mg/l, respectively. The mean concentrations of total hardness, alkalinity, TDS, EC and pH were 140.68 mg/l, 148.33 mg/l, 291.82 mg/l, 460.45 µ and 7.15, respectively. Based on the concentration of ions, CSPG1 and CSPG2 were found to be Ca²⁺ > Na⁺ > Mg²⁺ > K⁺. Birshelko, Tikurit, Lomi and AND3 springs have abundant cations Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺ > Na⁺ > K⁺, while TSS1 springs have Mg²⁺ > Ca²⁺ > Na⁺ > K⁺, which are located in the Infranz and Andasa sub-basins. In the springs of TBL_SPG2, TBL_SPG3 and TBL_SPG4, which originate along the Birr sub-basin, the concentrations of cations were Na⁺ > Ca²⁺ > K⁺ > Mg²⁺, while the concentrations of anions from all springs were HCO₃ > NO₃ > Cl > SO₄. Three major water types were identified, which are Ca–Mg–HCO₃, Mg–Ca–HCO₃ and Na–Ca–HCO₃, which label springs as fresh (shallow) groundwater, transitional (mixed) groundwater and regional (alkaline) water type. The concentration of hardness except TBL_SPG4 (Geray) spring, the rest are moderately hard to hard water type which consume more soap and scaling the pipe of water supply source. Except for CSPG1, CSPG2 and Lomi spring, the concentration of K is unsuitable for domestic purposes and is above the permissible limits of the WHO and Ethiopian Standards. CSP1, CSPG2, ASPG1 and Lomi springs show high NO₃ concentrations that desire to be protected from uncontrolled sewerage systems and agricultural activity.