Landscapes and Landforms of Austria

The landforms of Austria are the direct consequence of a continuous interplay between tectonic and climatic forces that have built, destroyed and reshaped the surface of the most iconic mountain belt on Earth for almost 40 Million years. As such, landforms can only be understood with a thorough geological background. This paper gives an overview of the tectonic evolution, the geological build up and the landscape evolution in the Austrian territory. The tectonic evolution of the rocks forming the major tectonic units of Austria can be traced back to some 500 Million years when they were located at different ancient continents including Gondwana, Avalonia and Laurasia. In the late Palaeozoic, the basement rocks were affected by the Variscan tectonometamorphic event during amalgamation of the supercontinent Pangaea and by a Permian extensional event. The latter is responsible for and was followed by a long-lived phase of thermal subsidence triggering the deposition of the Mesozoic sedimentary pile of the Northern Calcareous Alps. The formation and later subduction of the Neotethys and Penninic oceans began in Triassic and Jurassic times, respectively. The Alpine orogen as we know it today is largely the consequence of the head-on collision between the Adriatic and European plates once subduction had terminated around 40 Ma. The geological build up of Austria includes the Alps and its northern foreland. The foreland is composed of Variscan gneisses in the Bohemian Massif, their Mesozoic cover and Cenozoic sediments in the Molasse Basin. The Alps are made up of tectonic units derived from the European and Adriatic continents and the Neotethys and Penninic oceans that are covered by some intramontane and marginal basins that are filled with Neogene sediments. The landscape evolution evolved since the Oligocene and is highly influenced by processes in the mantle. It involved the interplay of many kilometres of rock uplift and simultaneous erosion so that few rocks at the surface today can be traced back to this time. Nevertheless, low-temperature geochronology, a series of fossil relict surfaces and enigmatic deposits like the Augenstein Formation on the plateaus of the Northern Calcareous Alps testify of a stepwise formation of the landscape over the last 25 Million years. Current research shows that up to 500 m of surface uplift may have occurred in the last 5 Million years alone.

This chapter provides an overview of the landscapes of Austria and a general background for the individual regional chapters of Part 2 of the book. The three major landscape units of Austria are the Eastern Alps, comprising about 63% of the territory, the Alpine forelands in the north and southeast of the mountain belt (27%), and the highlands of the Bohemian Massif in the north (10%). For the designation of smaller-scale regions, the geology of these three structural units with specific attention to lithology is discussed. Based on maps of elevation, relative relief and slope inclination, four relief types are defined. The combination of geology and relief types results in ten geomorphological landscape regions. These units are finally portrayed, complemented by brief descriptions of climate and land use. The main focus of these descriptive accounts are the Quaternary and contemporary geomorphological processes and characteristic landform assemblages with references to the chapters of part 2 in which they are covered in detail.

Austria has a diverse landscape as a result of the interplay of processes linked to tectonics and climate change. The final shaping occurred during the Quaternary (the last 2.58 Ma). This period is characterized by strong climatic variations on the global scale between glacial and interglacial conditions, which had different effects on the heterogeneous landscape, and its archives depending on the magnitude and duration of the climatic signal. The tectonic influence during the Quaternary is evident in instances of uplift as indicated by the Pleistocene terrace staircases of the Alpine foreland. In contrast, parts of the Vienna basin are characterized by subsidence linked to strike-slip faults. The oldest deposits are loess–palaeosol sequences (LPSs) which document the onset of loess accumulation with the occurrence of the Gauss/Matuyama palaeomagnetic reversal at the beginning of the Quaternary. The Early Pleistocene record consists of LPSs and gravel deposits with no indication of a glacier advance. Four major glaciations, namely Günz, Mindel, Riss and Würm (from oldest to youngest)—are known. These Ice Ages were characterized by a large complex of transection glaciers, i.e. an interconnected system of valley glaciers covering large sections of the Eastern Alps with glacier tongues terminating in the Alpine foreland. The three older glaciations are of Middle Pleistocene age, whereas the youngest happened during the Late Pleistocene. All four glaciations are recorded by Glacial Sequences genetically linking tongue basins with (subglacial) till, terminal moraine deposits and terraces consisting of proglacial outwash. Sediments of these glaciations differ in the degree of weathering and the characteristics of cover beds (e.g. LPSs). Based on geochronological data and the relation between type and magnitude of the global climate signal, the amount of reconstructed sediment production following correlation with major phases of global glaciation is used: Günz (MIS 16; 676–621 ka), Mindel (MIS 12; 478–424 ka), Riss (MIS 6; 191–130 ka) and (Late) Würm (MIS 2; 29–12 ka). Detailed knowledge of the Last Interglacial-Glacial cycle (130–12 ka) allows establishing models for climatically controlled sedimentary processes and for glacier expansion in the longitudinal valleys of the Eastern Alps. Overdeepened valleys and increased relief leading to different types of mass movements are also a legacy of glaciations. Evidence of Pleistocene permafrost (e.g. relict rock glaciers) as well as Holocene fluvial activity are further indications of the dynamic landscape development of the Austrian landscape during the Quaternary.

Rivers and valleys contribute to Austria’s proverbial beauty. Driven by climatological characteristics both elements are closely linked to each other. The section first gives a hydro-climatological characterization of Austria with special emphasis on rivers. Different runoff regimes are distinguished and can be grouped according to the influence of precipitation, evapotranspiration and storage. Snow cover and glaciers play a crucial role in hydrology due to the predominately mountainous character of Austria. Climate change will have significant consequences for hydrological processes and will be challenging for flood management in the future. Rivers have formed a complicated valley network which mirrors past tectonic processes, especially in mountainous areas. Younger geomorphological processes, in particular the Pleistocene glaciation and the glaciofluvial sedimentation combined with it, shaped the recent character of the valleys. Based on morphology and sedimentology, we provide a classification of valleys into 5 types. The sediment fills of the valleys are important for drinking water supply.

The term karst refers to specific geomorphological processes and thereof resulting in characteristic landscapes. About one-fifth of Austria consists of lithologies—mainly limestone, dolomite, and marble—susceptible to dissolution (i.e. karstification). Those lithologies occur in every landscape including the complete range of altitude: Northern Calcareous Alps, Southern Calcareous Alps, Helvetic units, Central Eastern Alps, Bohemian Massif, Alpine forelands, and Neogene basins. Consequently, Austrian karst landscapes are also subjected to a suite of non-karstic geomorphological processes, resulting in a great variety of endo- and exokarst features with distinct modifications. Small-scale solution features (karren) and dolines are very common. At high altitudes, these features have been exposed to processes related to Pleistocene glaciations. Moreover, karst springs with high discharge variabilities are well-known hydrologic features. Austria hosts 18,100 caves, and some of them are amongst the longest and deepest in the world. Although the majority of the caves are of epigenetic origin, some caves are also related to hypogene speleogenesis. Imprints from human activities on the karst environment can be traced back to the Palaeolithic period. Today, human-karst interactions are of particular importance: karst aquifers provide the catchment areas for drinking water supply for several municipals and karst landscapes represent resources for tourism, recreation, and furthermore. Not least, research in karst and caves makes an important contribution to science (e.g. palaeoclimatology).

Endogenic and exogenic geomorphic processes of different types and spatiotemporal dynamics can be observed within the territory of Austria. If these processes affect assets such as exposed buildings or infrastructure lines, they turn into hazards. In particular in the mountainous parts and in the Alpine foreland geomorphic hazards of different magnitude and frequency have repeatedly led to economic losses and fatalities. Together, the mountains and the Alpine foreland account for approximately 70% of the Austrian territory. Consequently, geomorphic hazards are an important issue in Austria. In the following, a brief overview of the major types of these hazards and their characteristics is given, including river and torrential flooding, gravitational mass movements, snow avalanches, hazards associated with glaciers and permafrost, as well as seismic hazards. Furthermore, information on the temporal and spatial occurrence of major event types and associated losses is provided.

The variability of Earth’s surface materials, forms and physical processes is crucial for sustaining ecosystems and their services, as it influences fauna, flora and land use, and via land use the development of specific cultural elements of a region. Many of Austria’s nature protection areas display and interpret these abiotic attributes of nature, namely special landforms, landscapes or geological features. Nature protection under Austria’s federal system has one notable weakness, namely that the legislation and implementation of nature protection falls under the jurisdiction of its provinces. Consequently, nine individual protection laws, differing in detail and quality, exist. Only protection categories are somewhat consistent. Geoheritage in Austria is conserved in six national parks, 47 nature parks, three UNESCO Global Geoparks and one national geopark. The last category – geoparks – is unfortunately not included in Austria’s nature protection laws. Geotourism has the goal to raise the awareness of abiotic nature attributes, together with promoting a profound understanding of Earth sciences and the conservation of geodiversity. Geotourism and geoheritage are two sides of the same coin. Once a geoheritage site or park becomes a visitor magnet, its importance and value will rise, while geotourism depends on geoheritage and its protection. Geotourism must not be confused with adventure and activity tourism, in which geoheritage is occasionally used as a backdrop for activity setups. Challenges for the management of Austria’s parks and sites are manifold. On the one hand, there is the goal to increase visitor numbers, and on the other hand, any negative impact of intensified visitation on the geoheritage itself must be prevented. As always, scarcity of funds is a pervasive problem, not only for maintenance of the existing infrastructure, but more importantly for the development of best practice education in order to make every visitor a multiplier in the protection of Austria’s unique and beautiful places.

The Waldviertel region in the northern part of Lower Austria hosts numerous localities of granite tors which add to the diversity of landscape developed through protracted long-term deep weathering and regolith stripping. They are varied in size and shape. Castellated tors tend to occur at higher elevations, whilst bouldery tors and monolithic boulders, isolated or in clusters, are common within gently rolling upland surfaces. A rich suite of surface microforms includes weathering pits, flared slopes, karren, rills, and pseudobedding. The area of the Kogelsteine near Eggenburg is a unique geosite at the eastern margin of Waldviertel, with the history of deep weathering, stripping, burial, exhumation, and further development in subaerial conditions.

The marginal eastern parts of the Bohemian Massif in Austria are characterized by incised valley meanders, which have formed in response to tectonic uplift and river channel incision starting before c. 5 Ma. The most impressive examples of incised valley meanders are located in the Waldviertel Highlands along the Thaya, Kamp and Krems rivers. In this chapter, some hotspot examples with canyon-like incised meanders and related other landforms with a special focus on the Thayatal National Park are presented. The Thayatal National Park is the smallest out of six Austrian national parks and is connected to the larger Czech Podyjí National Park. In the Thayatal National Park, an impressive example of a double bend meander can be found at Umlaufberg and Ostroh, caused by highly resistant orthogneisses in the western meander neck, which forced the river to flow around. At some locations, the Thaya Valley is cut into the Thaya granite and Biteš gneiss, and characterized by steep valley sides, castellated rock outcrops, boulder fields and block streams. Boulder fields and block streams developed by unloading of rocks in the Late Pleistocene and were accentuated during the Holocene by gravitational slope processes. Along the Kamp and Krems valleys, deeply incised valley meanders similar to those found along the Thaya Valley have formed. In the lower courses of the Kamp and Krems valleys, well-preserved Pleistocene loess profiles with several pedocomplexes (e.g. the Stiefern loess sequence in the Kamp Valley) can be found, serving as indicators of landscape evolution and palaeoclimatic changes. Moreover, along the Krems River impressive cave systems can be observed, such as the “Gudenushöhle”, which is considered to be one of the earliest human settlements in Austria.

The Wachau is a famous and picturesque riverine landscape along the Danube River in Lower Austria. It is a valley incised into the crystalline rocks of the Bohemian Massif. Middle Miocene (Badenian) sediments in the eastern part between Krems and Spitz indicate a pre-existent fjord-like bay of the Badenian Sea. Fluvial sediments in valleys north of the recent course of the Danube show a different, more northerly course of the Palaeo-Danube in the late Miocene. In the late Pliocene and Pleistocene, the Danube deeply incised into the southeastern margin of the Bohemian Massif along its recent course, presumably triggered by uplift caused by the northward moving Alpine units. Due to the influence of a warm Pannonian climate, the Wachau is suited for wine and apricot production. Since the Middle Ages terraces with simple rock walls, which are now a characteristic feature of the valley, have been constructed for easier cultivation. The Wachau has been inhabited since Palaeolithic times. Several important artefacts like sculptures of women found in Stratzing and Willendorf document the early human habitation that led to a continuous development until today. Along the valley historical buildings from Roman times, the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Baroque can be found. In 2000, the Wachau became a UNESCO World Heritage Site to protect the unique combination of cultural and natural sites. The World Heritage Trail connects the 13 municipalities of the Cultural Landscape Wachau and encompasses 20 ruins and castles, monasteries and the Wachau wine region. Natural hazards threatening the World Heritage Site are mainly floods and rockfalls.

Loess, a light-yellowish sediment composed of silt-sized material, takes up a large proportion of the northeast of Lower Austria and is full of surprises of cultural and scientific importance. On the one hand, the presence of loess results in a particular set of landforms such as loess dells, gullies, sunken roads and sinkholes of both natural and anthropogenic origin. On the other hand, the many outcrops of loess with several metres of height still reveal unprecedented insights in the climatic and settlement history of Lower Austria. Both, sunken roads and palaeosols may be seen as silent witnesses of past landscape changes but on a very different time scale. Originating from a natural gully erosion process, sunken roads evolved from gullies by their transformation in access paths leading to agricultural fields. Many driving forces influenced the vertical and lateral erosion of sunken roads, which showed increasing erosion rates of up to 15–30 cm per year until the mid-twentieth century. Nowadays, many sunken roads have disappeared and many remaining ones are paved or protected from further erosion and are transformed to cellar lanes (sunken roads with wine cellars dug next to each other into the loess wall). Results from analysing the ages of palaeosols found in Lower Austrian loess profiles are internationally important. Still to the day, with upcoming new dating methods and the chance for more detailed analysis, new insights into the stratigraphy, the related ages, palaeorelief and climate oscillations are found in close collaborations of geographers and archaeologists. Many internationally important archaeological artefacts and presumably the oldest loess of Europe were found in Lower Austria.

Situated between the European capitals Vienna and Bratislava in the Vienna Basin, the Danube Floodplain National Park covers one of the largest remaining floodplains in Central Europe. Here, the Danube River is still free flowing and forms the lifeline of the park. Prior to channelization in the nineteenth century, the Danube can be referred to as a high- to medium-energy variant of anabranching rivers that comprises both braiding and meandering elements. Between 1726 and 1817, main channel(s) and lotic side arms made up 85–95% of the total water bodies in the floodplain, pointing to the crucial role of river dynamics. Large shares of the fluvial landforms were permanently renewed by lateral bank erosion, avulsion of new channels or reoccupation of abandoned arms. River training programmes and flood protection projects in the nineteenth century severely truncated the system-inherent potential for channel adjustments. The consequences are the comprehensive stabilization of formerly dynamic fluvial landforms and the missing renewal of riverine habitats. Human interventions in the upstream Danube sections and lacking bedload influx also affected the morphological development in the national park. Today, the success of habitat restoration in such a channelized river reach is constrained by several factors. Locally, the requirements for unhampered navigation and the protection of the hinterland against floods are the most important concerns. Remote impacts, such as severely truncated bedload transport, restrain the recovery of the original river-typical fluvial processes and channel dynamics.

The Lake Neusiedl area is a unique lakescape, situated at the geodynamical and geomorphological boundary between the Alps, Carpathians and the Pannonian Basin, and therefore represents an important transition zone concerning terrain, climate, vegetation, fauna and cultures. We use geomorphological as well as geological data, topographical and historical maps plus historical charters to reconstruct the palaeohydrology of Lake Neusiedl and document dramatic landscape changes, especially in the last centuries. The present-day hydrological conditions of and processes at Lake Neusiedl are very different from those in the past. Virtually, all historical maps before 1780 show the Ikva River, Répce (Rabnitz) River and Kis-Rába River discharging into the connected Neusiedlersee/Hanság area that possessed a natural outlet, the Rábca River. The documented episodic variation of the water levels of Lake Neusiedl between desiccation and highest flood levels is c. 4.2 m, affecting enormous areas in this extremely low-relief region, with a huge impact on the landscape, fauna and vegetation, human settlement patterns, land use and communication routes—which should be considered in regional archaeological and historical interpretations. The numerous shallow lakes and presently dry basins in the Seewinkel originally formed as thermokarst lakes during early Lateglacial permafrost degradation after the end of the Late Glacial Maximum (LGM).

This chapter highlights Quaternary landforms and sediments in the Northern Alpine foreland between Salzburg and Upper Austria—a region with a remarkable history of Quaternary research from the early pioneers in the twentieth century to the quantitative studies of today, making use of a range of modern (e.g., dating) techniques. Before any glaciers modified the region, the Mio-Pliocene landscape was dominated by massive accumulation of fluvial sediments originating from the still growing Alps in the hinterland to the Molasse basin in the foreland. Large parts of these deposits were later on eroded, reworked, and superimposed by glacial sediments during several Pleistocene cycles of glaciation and deglaciation. The sedimentary signatures of the regionally most important Salzach and Traun glaciers are exceptionally well preserved and can be traced from their inner-Alpine source areas, along their transport routes following the Salzach and Traun valleys, within several peripheral glacially shaped basins, and finally in the terminal moraines and adjacent outwash plains further north. In contrast to the Pleistocene Salzach Glacier that emanated from the Central Alps and formed a large piedmont glacier in the foreland, the branches of the Traun Glacier barely reached the foreland, because of a smaller ice accumulation zone in the Northern Calcareous Alps, predominantly on the high plateaus of Totes Gebirge and Hoher Dachstein. With the Traun-Enns-Platte and the Salzach-Inn confluence area, two important terrace systems north of the Quaternary ice margin developed. However, this unique landscape of glacial heritage constitutes a fragile and vulnerable system which needs to be protected.

Landslides of the slide-type movement are common on slopes of the federal state of Vorarlberg. This chapter focuses on landslides located in the Walgau region, where both shallow and deep-seated slope movements are widespread and leave a distinct geomorphic footprint on the hillsides. Landslide activity considerably increased since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and still plays a substantial role in landscape evolution of the area. Several examples of this chapter highlight that the causes of those slope movements are manifold and a result of a complex interplay between various processes which act frequently at different spatial scales, but with varying intensity. The presented large, deep-seated, and small, frequently occurring landslides of the area are strongly influenced, respectively, caused by an interplay between the prevalent relief-rich topography, the local geological setting, regolith coverages, the humid climate, and recurrent land cover changes. Human activities are also known to directly impact the geomorphic dynamic of several recent landslide events. Major challenges for the future arise due to projected and already observable changes in land cover, climate, and human impact, which may modify the magnitude and frequency of the landslide process itself, but also the exposition of people, their properties, and the living environment.

Most major Alpine rivers have undergone extensive regulation in order to gain arable land and to control flooding in Alpine communities. The Tiroler Lech River is often considered the only near-natural river landscape in the northern Alps. Although it has undergone manifold alterations since the end of the nineteenth century—later than most other Alpine rivers—it is granted sufficient space to form a braided river landscape, with huge gravel banks and ecologically valuable riverine forests along a major part of its course. Also in these sections, longitudinal and transversal manmade structures containing the river are obvious features in the landscape. Those measures have resulted in gravel deficits and subsequent incision of the river bed, increased flood risk due to increased human activities on the floodplains, and have caused a threat to ecological diversity. These ramifications were recognized towards the end of the twentieth century and were later countered by restoration efforts, such as widening of the river bed, removal of retention dams in the tributaries, reconnecting detached lateral branches with the main river course, the management of target species, and by increasing public awareness.

This chapter introduces the geomorphology of the World Heritage site Hallstatt-Dachstein/Salzkammergut. The historical significance of the region and its (geo) scientific implications are briefly summarized before focusing on various geological and geomorphological highlights within three selected areas. The Dachstein massif is addressed first. Based on a short tectonic history, the well-preserved 35 Ma paleosurfaces and the long-lasting formation of the complex karst cave system is illustrated. Further karst and karst water phenomena are described before highlighting recent glacier retreat and permafrost warming as a consequence of climate change. Within the section on the Gosau Valley, paleo-geographic and geologic basics, the Lateglacial history and paraglacial consequences, including deep-seated gravitational slope deformations and debris flows, are introduced. The glacial imprint in the root zone of the former Traun Glacier and the geomechanical system “hard on soft rocks” strongly affect the pattern and mechanics of potentially hazardous mass movements around Lake Hallstatt as illustrated by the Sandling, the Zwerchwand, and the active sediment cascade from the Plassen down to the village of Hallstatt. Some critical notes on, and future perspectives for the regional tourism are finally provided.

Gesäuse is the name of a huge gorge the Enns River has cut into the Northern Calcareous Alps forming an impressive scenery with a relative relief of up to 1800 m. Besides a topographical overview, this chapter presents the most important facts on the interplay between lithology and relief and the impact of the Pleistocene glaciation on the region. Remnants of palaeosurfaces are discussed with respect to morphogenesis, resulting in a hypothesis on the development of the Gesäuse Gorge. Furthermore, we provide insight into ongoing research focussing on sediment cascades. The results show that in the picturesque dolomite landscape around the Johnsbach tributary river, rockwall retreat rates are exceptionally high. The debris is transported to the Johnsbach by episodic debris flows. There is a considerable human impact by former gravel mining and by undersized bridge openings, disconnecting some side valleys from the main river. Further interactions of geomorphology and socio-economic activities are discussed with a focus on natural hazards and nature protection (Gesäuse National Park). Finally, some selected future research agendas are outlined.

The Rax massif is located at the border of the Austrian provinces of Styria and Lower Austria. The area is part of the Northern Calcareous Alps (NCA) and covers 104 km2. The plateau is built up by a Triassic carbonate sequence with a thickness of more than 1 km. Similar to other plateaus of the NCA, the Rax massif indicates remnants of ‘Tertiary’ palaeosurfaces which carry Quartz-rich sediments of the Augenstein Formation. There is a long-lasting scientific controversy about the age and the evolution of these palaeosurfaces. Lichtenecker (Das Bewegungsbild Der Ostalpen. Naturwissenschaften 13:739–743, 1924) introduced the terms Augenstein-Landschaft and Rax-Landschaft. The latest model, introduced by Frisch et al. (Int J Earth Sci 90:500–518, 2001) proposed the term Dachstein-palaeosurfaces for karstified landscapes developed before the Augenstein sedimentation. The plateau area (approximately 27 km2) is characterized by intense karstification including entire underground drainage. The morphogenesis of the epikarst is influenced by the presence of soil-cover and sparse vegetation. Due to dominantly subsoil development, karren are characterized by rounded forms. Closed depressions (dolines) represent the dominating surface karst feature. Based on airborne LIDAR data and intensive field mapping 914 dolines, with a summarized area of approximately 0.15 km2, are delineated and their morphometric characteristics analyzed. Although the study area comprises a large number of caves, deep pits or large cave systems are unknown so far, which is in contrast to other karst massifs of the NCA. The Rax plateau also comprises the catchment areas of springs captured for the Viennese water supply.

The Montafon Valley, located in southwestern Austria, is—for a comparatively small region of approximately 560 km2—characterized by a high diversity of geological and geomorphological features. The landscapes of the Montafon comprise landforms and associated processes common in high mountains, a deeply incised main valley of the Ill River as a result of both glacial erosion and fluvial deposition, and several headwater tributaries. Montafon is dominated by a variety of relict and recent mass movements. The high geodiversity is still a main resource for the region and ranges from ancient mining activities to the current use of the landscape for hydropower and tourism. Thus, the landscape is an interplay of natural geomorphology and anthropogenic impact. The chapter provides an excursion guide to the diverse landscapes and landforms of this region, following the Ill River from its lower reach to its source.

The line connecting the Zugspitze and the central Ötz Valley is characterized by a remarkably high density of large prehistoric landslides, with distinctive “Bergsturz” landscapes in their deposition areas. Those events north of the Inn Valley (e.g., Fernpass, Tschirgant) originated in carbonate rock units and those south of the Inn Valley in metamorphic rocks (e.g., Köfels). All events were geologically predisposed by complex fold-, fault- and fracture systems. The failed slopes mobilized substantial rock mass volumes and led to the accumulation of fluvio-lacustrine backwater sediments. Temporally, these early and middle Holocene landslides cluster with other events in the surrounding regions in the Alps. The landslide accumulation areas are characterized by rough debris and rather permeable terrain, and are therefore unfavourable for agricultural use. Distinctive forest ecosystems often dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) are best adapted to these conditions. Whilst the deposition areas of large landslides were—and are still—obstacles for traffic and unfavourable for many types of land use, they are often perceived as appealing and scenic, and are therefore popular for recreational activities.

The upper Ötz Valley comprises Vent Valley, Gurgl Valley and their tributaries. It is one of the most intensively glaciated regions in Austria. The area gained worldwide attention when almost 5300 years old “Ötzi” was discovered here in 1991, showing how early a human presence and influence on the landscape must be expected. The main morphological shaping in this mountain area was done by the huge glaciers during the Pleistocene including all typical geomorphological features of the glacial and periglacial process systems. The glacier forefields of Gurgler Ferner and Rotmoosferner offer classic localities for glacier history investigation as well as appropriate chronosequences for ecological research. With Vernagtferner, Hintereisferner and Kesselwandferner, some of the best investigated glaciers in the Eastern Alps are located here. In historical times, several advances of Vernagtferner into the Rofen Valley caused the formation of an ice dam and the subsequent filling of a meltwater lake followed by an outburst with catastrophic impacts further downstream. As a consequence, systematic observations and investigations have a long tradition, both on the glaciers and in the periglacial areas. This includes also Hochebenkar rock glacier in the Gurgl Valley. In recent years, the upper Ötz Valley was used as a test site for remote sensing approaches for glacier monitoring and subsequent geomorphological analysis in the glacier periphery, mainly focusing on Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS). By the combination of new methodological approaches with traditional research knowledge, this study area has a strong potential to analyse recent changes and also to impart this knowledge to the public.

Since the early twentieth century, a prominent end moraine at the village of Trins in the Gschnitz Valley in the Tyrolean Alps serves as type locality for an alpine-wide lateglacial phase of glacier advances. Dating of the moraine with the terrestrial cosmogenic radionuclide 10Be gives a stabilization age for the moraine in the range of 16.6 ± 1.4 ka. As the glacier at Trins and comparable glaciers elsewhere in the Alps advanced over ice-free terrain, the “Gschnitz Stadial” is the first glacier advance in the Eastern Alps, which is independent of the large system of dendritic valley glaciers and local ice caps of the Last Glacial Maximum. The large end moraine and lateral moraines at the type locality and at comparable glaciers in other valleys indicate that the glacier geometry remained stable for at least several decades or even a few centuries. At the type locality, the equilibrium line altitude was about 700 m lower than during the Little Ice Age. From the morphological and glaciological characteristics of the glacier and its moraines, a cold and dry climate can be inferred. Summers were 8–10 °C colder compared to the twentieth-century mean, and annual precipitation sums were reduced to about one-third of present-day amounts.

The Krimml Waterfalls drop from a nearly 400 m high, multiple structured rock step in the Krimml trough valley near the border of the gneiss core of the Subpenninic thrust. They are the most famous of a series of waterfalls, concentrated in the upper end of the Salzach longitudinal valley exemplifying the type of well-preserved consequent waterfall. Holocene incisions in the hard rock bars and the valley step are relatively insignificant while the other two spectacular waterfalls in the neighbouring Sulzbach valleys, the Sulzbach Fall and the Gamseck Fall, are well developed erosional waterfalls. All the waterfalls show high discharge during the summer months giving spectacular waterfall views. Their initiation goes back to varying structural and geomorphic conditions as well as to the process systems which act in their whole drainage basins. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Krimml Waterfalls have attracted nature lovers and alpinists and trails have been generated by the Alpine Club. In 1983, the Krimml Waterfalls were incorporated into the Hohe Tauern National Park. As one of the most visited sites, the waterfall area can also be considered an outstanding geomorphosite.

The Großglockner-Pasterze Glacier area represents one of the most famous mountain sceneries of the entire European Alps. It has attracted scientific and tourist attention since the mid-nineteenth century resulting in a long research tradition. This high mountain landscape is built of crystalline rocks, and the climate is characterised by low temperatures depending on elevation and by a pronounced precipitation gradient from north to south. This chapter is focussed on the Pasterze Glacier, and the glacial history from the Last Glacial Maximum to the glacier’s retreat since the Little Ice Age maximum is discussed. Significant findings of fossil wood and peat provide important palaeoclimatic information for the Holocene at Pasterze Glacier. Glacier length changes have been measured since 1879, revealing one of the longest records of glacier retreat worldwide. Data are also presented on the paraglacial gravitational processes that occur adjacent to the retreating glacier. In the foreseeable future, continuing glacier recession will foster mass wasting processes that are significant natural hazards. These developments are also of importance in the context of environmental protection within the Hohe Tauern National Park.

Nearly all tributaries of the major rivers in western Carinthia emerging from the mountain fronts show knickpoints. They are preconditioned both by glacial overdeepening of the trunk valley and tectonic/isostatic displacements that led to marked base level change and in consequence to sharp incisions of the lowest tributary reaches. Initiation and development of gorges, however, are controlled by very different parameters as demonstrated by the three selected examples. The Ragga Slot (Kreuzeck Mts.) is outstanding in revealing the shaping of a bedrock channel due to a very recent downcutting of the lowest reach of a hanging valley. The Gaisloch Gorge (Gailtal Alps) illustrates an advanced stage in gorge development accomplished by accelerated retreat of its dolomitic sidewalls, creating a spectacular rock scenery. Finally, the Garnitzen Valley (Carnic Alps) represents a complex of gorges, including slots and gaps that are integrated into a glacial through valley. The three presented gorges can be classified as typical geomorphosites. They were opened for visitors at the beginning of the nineteenth century thanks to local initiatives and by the Alpine Club; the gorges/slots of the Ragga River and the Garnitzen River have been declared as natural monuments.

Rock glaciers are prominent landforms in mountain regions and as such indicate permafrost conditions at present or in former times. So-called active rock glaciers consist of debris and ice and creep slowly downslope thereby forming flow structures with ridges and furrows. This geomorphological expression of permafrost creep is commonly preserved after the complete melt-out of the ice component of the now relict rock glacier body. Rock glaciers are widespread in the Austrian Alps, with c. 2900 relict rock glaciers containing no ice at present and c. 1700 intact rock glaciers which contain ice and indicate the widespread permafrost occurrence. A very recent inventory lists even more than 5700 rock glaciers and related landforms. One of the best studied active rock glaciers in Austria is the Dösen Rock Glacier located in the Central Austrian Alps. It has been investigated during several national and international projects since 1993, dealing with permafrost conditions and distribution, surface kinematics, internal structure and age. Significant ground surface warming of the rock glacier body occurred since 2007, accompanied by general acceleration of the rock glacier surface flow velocity. Relative age dating of the landform indicates a long and variable formation history over a period of several thousand years. Selected topics with a geomorphological focus and the relationships between permafrost and environmental conditions are communicated to the public by an educational trail which has been established at this rock glacier and its vicinity.

The Ore of the Alps UNESCO Global Geopark has been a member of the European and Global Geopark Network since 2014. It covers an area of 212 km2 and includes two major geological units of the Alps, the Greywacke Zone and the Northern Calcareous Alps. Both components are associated with a long history of geological research revealing important phases in the Variscan and Alpine orogenies in this region of the Eastern Alps. The region is also the focus of fundamental research work on Quaternary sediments and landforms. Within the Geopark, numerous geosites document the geology of the basement rocks, the more recent features generated in the landscape by geomorphic processes during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs, and the influence of human activities including remnants of Neolithic settlements, copper mining since the Bronze Age and modern road- and tunnel building activities. The Geopark and its backbone—the “Copper Trail”—provide a sound basis for geotourism, which is seen as an important branch of soft and sustainable tourism.

Geomorphologists celebrate the mountain group of the Schladminger Tauern for its superb landforms of glacial erosion. Hikers celebrate it for its scenic quality. This non-glacierized mountain group straddling the main divide of the Eastern Alps in Styria was analysed with the aid of a geomorphological map showing all glacial and periglacial features. The main focus of this chapter is the cirque landscape. A review of cirque development models is followed by analyses of a data base of 76 cirques in the Schladminger Tauern. Three prominent results are noted: (i) cirques of the study area are larger than elsewhere, but most conspicuous is their relatively deep incision; (ii) there has been an above average rate of glacial downcutting; and (iii) optimal Pleistocene conditions for cirque formation were determined from analysis of cirque aspects. The superb cirque development of the study area may be explained by its intermediate altitudinal position on the main divide of the Eastern Alps: during glacial maxima the mountain group was covered by the large Alpine complex of transection glaciers. Much longer durations of the glacial periods, however, were characterized by a local glaciation including intervals of separate cirque glaciers.

Iron ore has been mined in the Erzberg area for at least 900 years, possibly as long as 1500 years. This mining history can be divided into three periods of impact on the landscape. Due to the inefficiency of the early smelting techniques and the low production levels, the first period remained free of serious impacts. A huge demand for energy for ore smelting characterized the second period, resulting in supra-regional deforestation for charcoal production. The third period of mechanized surface mining is marked by the creation of large man-made landforms. In the Erzberg area, both historical documentation and modern recording of the mining activities are exceptionally good and provide an opportunity for (i) a qualitative identification and description of the associated landscape changes and (ii) a first attempt to quantify them. Qualitative analysis of the documents provided a detailed description of how distinct anthropogenic impacts and landforms have emerged and identified the procedures that caused mediaeval supra-regional deforestation. A slope exposure opened along a creek allows interpretation of the geomorphic effects of the historical forest depletion. Quantification of the extent of deforestation was carried out for a forest area close to the mining site. The results allow a reconstruction of the condition of the forest at this site over two centuries. For quantification of the earth material moved by man in mechanized surface mining denudation rates for the Erzberg site were computed and compared with the sediment budget of a nearby river catchment. This comparison suggests that on the local scale man is two to three orders of magnitude more effective in transforming the landscape than geomorphic processes.

Dobratsch is a karst massif surrounded by tectonic faults near the southern border of Austria. It has been declared a nature park due to its outstanding natural features among which the “landslide landscape” is of special importance. It came into existence by a sequence of landslides which on the one hand shaped the south face of the mountain (summit elevation 2166 m asl) by detachment scarps and on the other hand transformed the valley beneath it into a hummocky deposition area extending over some 20 km2. One of the landslides occurred in AD 1348 and was the reason for the widespread recognition of the mountain and its natural hazards in legends and historical records until today. The Dobratsch is mainly built of Mesozoic limestones which are intensively karstified. Dolines and especially vertical caves are the most prominent karst features. From the hydrological point of view, the karst aquifer is used for supplying drinking water to nearby city of Villach.

The Klagenfurt basin is the second-largest basin of the Alps and hosts the socioeconomically most important subregion of Austria’s federal state Carinthia. This chapter focusses on the basin’s extraordinary variety of landforms and their evolution. The basin itself is a flexural basin that developed by a downwarping of the crust under the load of the northward moving Karawanken Mountains. During the LGM, almost the entire basin was covered by an ice sheet, which was important for the development of the basin’s landscape, characterized by many lakes such as Lake Wörthersee. The last glaciation also explains why rivers such as the Gurk do not follow a N–S course—as would be expected because of the flexure—but rather show a peculiar river network. Two exemplary subregions of the basin that are of special morphological interest are portrayed. The Sattnitz plateau consists of Neogene conglomerates, which are interpreted as sediments from the Karawanken Mountains. However, the areas of erosion and sedimentation are separated from each other by the current valley of the Drau River. This section of the Drau Valley is therefore younger than other sections and only has developed during the Pleistocene. Finally, the Krappfeld, a northern subbasin of the Klagenfurt basin, is discussed with special attention to its glaciofluvial sediment filling and its position to the neighbouring glaciation systems during the Pleistocene.

Active volcanoes do not exist in Austria today. However, remnants of volcanoes that were active during two main eruption periods between about 23 and 1 million years ago are prominent geomorphic features in the southeast of Austria. In this chapter, we discuss a complex landform evolution, in which sedimentological, tectonic, volcanic, and erosional processes acted together to create the present landscape. The study area is the Styrian basin and its vicinity, where 31 volcanic sites are located. Today, nothing is left of the primary volcanic landscape due to erosional processes lowering the original surface by some hundreds of metres since the end of the eruptions. The two main volcanic landforms present today are (i) maar-diatreme volcanoes, which form prominent and steep mountains consisting of basaltic tuff and maar lake sediments, and (ii) residuals of complex volcanoes consisting of tuff, scoria and massive basalt layers, partly buried by post-eruption sediments. The former are smaller in their spatial extent and monogenetic, whereas the latter are polygenetic, rather large, but partially buried by sediments. Some of the former volcanoes are characterized by well-developed planation surfaces that developed during the last million years. Hypsometric analyses were carried out for six volcano remnants (i) for morphometric characterization and (ii) to compare them with active volcanoes. The results revealed that only well-eroded diatreme volcanoes such as Güssing can be suitably characterized by means of a hypsometric analysis. In all other cases, this approach fails due to the complex formation and erosion history of the volcanoes.