5. Legal Consequences

Desierto (2012), p. 48.

Birnie et al. (2009), p. 217.

Section 177 (a), Compact of Free Association of the United States of America, and the Governments of the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia, signed by the United States and by the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands on October 1, 1982 and June 25, 1983.

Louka (2006), p. 470.

International Court of Justice: Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v Australia), Memorial of the Republic of Nauru Volume 1 (1990), p. 38.

Ibid., p. 61.

Ibid., p. 119.

Paras 1–6, Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1992, p. 240, paras. 1–6.

Louka (2006), pp. 471–472.

Shaw (2008), p. 786.

Ibid., p. 785.

Crawford (2002), p. 83.

Corfu Channel Case (U.K. v. Albania), Judgment, ICJ Reports 1949, p. 4.

Shaw (2008), pp. 785, 786.

Brownlie (2008), p. 439.

ICJ Reports 1949, 18, 22.

Brownlie (2008), p. 439.

Crawford (2002), p. 83.

Cassese (2005), p. 246.

Shaw (2008), p. 786.

Aristoteles: Nikomachische Ethik (2006).

Ibid., pp. 149 ff.

Shelton (2000), p. 38.

Baumert et al. (2005), p. 32.

Posner and Sunstein (2007), p. 20.

In 2007, Eric Posner and Cass Sunstein, both professors of the University of Chicago, published their working paper on ‘Climate Change Justice.’ This paper is one of the only published legal works available arguing against the applicability of corrective justice to climate change.

Posner and Sunstein (2007), p. 21.

Ibid.

Stein and Buttlar (2009), p. 399.

Hobe (2008), p. 251.

Brownlie (2008), p. 433.

This effective control was denied, e.g., by the ICJ, which concluded in the case of Serbia that despite the fact that the IICTY found Serbian government officials guilty of genocide, Serbia was not responsible for committing genocide because of the lack of effective control that Serbia exercised over these individual perpetrators. See: Applications of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) (Judgment 2007) ICJ Reports 1993, para. 147.

In the United States, this would be, for instance, the ‘Clean Air Act’ (P.L. 88–206) (for short, information on the ‘Clean Air Act’; see: Gilpin 2000, p. 39), in Germany the ‘Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz’ and on the European Level the ‘Industrial Emissions Directive’ (2010/75/EU).

Crawford (2002), p. 79.

Ibid., p. 80.

Posner and Sunstein (2007), p. 21.

Fox (1989), p. 13.

Ibid.

Union of Concerned Scientists (2011) Each Country’s Share of CO₂ Emissions, http://​www.​ucsusa.​org/​global_​warming/​science_​and_​impacts/​science/​each-countrys-share-of-co2.​html (the data available from the U.S. Energy Information Administration refers to the year 2008).

Ibid.

Posner and Sunstein (2007), p. 2.

Falkof 2006, http://​www.​chathamhouse.​org/​sites/​default/​files/​public/​Research/​International%20​Law/​il211106.​pdf, p. 5.

Gaines (1989), p. 314.

Shaw (2008), p. 786.

Crawford (2002), p. 92.

For further discussion on ultra vires acts, see: Shaw (2008), pp. 788, 789.

Cassese (2005), p. 246.

Gaines (1990–1991), p. 786.

Sands et al. (2012), p. 13.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 9. The attribution of conduct to a state is regulated in Part One of the ILC-DASR in Chapter Two, articles 4–11.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 9.

This is regulated in article 8 ILC-DASR; for deeper insight, see: Crawford (2002), pp. 110–113.

Birnie et al. (2009), p. 214.

Shaw (2008), p. 859.

Ibid.

Hobe (2008), p. 251.

Sperduti (2000), pp. 216, 217.

Hobe (2008), p. 250.

Brownlie (2008), p. 449.

Crawford (2002), p. 312.

ICJ Reports 1949, p. 174.

Crawford (2002), p. 80.

Ibid.

Fitzmaurice (2007), p. 1012.

Crawford (2002), p. 76.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 12.

Tol and Verheyen (2004), p. 1113.

Reis (2011), p. 12.

International Union for Conservation of Nature (1980), Chapter 18.

Ibid.

Tams (2002), p. 762.

Posner and Sunstein (2007), p. 24.

Ibid.

See graphic in: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, AR4 (2008), p. 11.

Stern (2006), p. 139, http://​webarchive.​nationalarchives​.​gov.​uk/​+/​http://​www.​hm-treasury.​gov.​uk/​independent_​reviews/​stern_​review_​economics_​climate_​change/​stern_​review_​report.​cfm.

Ibid.

Sanden (2008), p. 439.

Ibid., p. 438.

Ibid., p. 439.

On this notion, see also: Ibid., pp. 440–442.

Cassese (2005), p. 245.

Ibid., pp. 245, 246.

Shaw (2008), p. 783.

Gilpin (2000), p. 298.

Ibid.

Louka (2006), p. 481.

Sands et al. (2012), p. 701.

Cassese (2005), p. 250.

Ibid., p. 251.

Ibid.

Shaw (2008), p. 783.

Ibid., p. 785.

Gaines (1989), p. 330.

Hart and Honoré (1985), p. 63.

Crawford (2002), p. 84.

Handl (2007), p. 532.

Crawford (1998) at para. 117.

Zemanek (2000), p. 221.

Cassese (2005), pp. 251, 252.

Ibid., p. 252.

Crawford (2002), p. 84.

Ibid.

Sands et al. (2012), p. 709.

Ibid., p. 708.

Reis (2011), p. 8.

Farber (2008), p. 402.

Haritz (2011), p. 15.

Crawford (2002), p. 204.

Ibid., p. 205.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 25.

Peeters (2011), p. 123.

Voigt (2008), p. 11; Tomuschat (2011), p. 25.

Tol and Verheyen (2004), p. 1113.

Ibid., p. 1112.

See: Ibid. This view is respected by Tomuschat; see: Tomuschat (2011), p. 11.

Hart and Honoré (1985), p. 123.

Ibid., p. 62.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 124.

Ibid., p. 127.

The term is used in accordance to Hart in: Ibid., p. 135.

Ibid., p. 137.

Ibid., p. 138.

Ibid., p. 141.

For example, by Geo Engineering.

Kaczorowska (2012), p. 481.

Cassese (2005), p. 253.

Desierto (2012), p. 49.

Crawford (2002), p. 160.

Cassese (2005), p. 257.

Tanzi (2012), pp. 584, 585.

Crawford (2002), p. 189.

Ibid., p. 178.

Tanzi (2012), p. 584.

Ibid., p. 586.

Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v. Slovakia), Judgment, ICJ Reports 1997, p. 7.

Ibid., pp. 37, 38. In the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros case, the court rejected the defense on the grounds of necessity; it held that Hungary could not prove the existence of an immanent peril and that there were other means available to address potential perils. See: Ibid., pp. 37, 38.

Crawford (2002), p. 184.

Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Judgment, ICJ Reports (1998), p. 432.

Crawford (2002), p. 183.

Kaczorowska (2012), p. 480; Crawford (2002), p. 178.

Crawford (2002), p. 178.

Ibid.

Tanzi (2012), p. 586.

Crawford (2002), p. 183.

For further reading on ‘national security’ as grounds for preclusion of wrongfulness in international law and numerous examples thereof, see: Desierto (2012), p. 150 f.

Desierto (2012), p. 145.

The legal debate on geoengineering illustrates the problem: a state might argue that it is severely affected by climate change and thus invoke distress or necessity for violating a primary international rule by using geoengineering techniques in order to combat climate change. However, it could also be argued that all states which have contributed to climate change are excluded from invoking necessity pursuant to article 25. 2 (b) ILC DASR. See: Hollo et al. (2013), p. 461.

Hostettler (2008), p. 12, https://​www.​ehs.​unu.​edu/​file/​get/​3595.

Stern (2006), http://​webarchive.​nationalarchives​.​gov.​uk/​+/​http://​www.​hm-treasury.​gov.​uk/​independent_​reviews/​stern_​review_​economics_​climate_​change/​stern_​review_​report.​cfm.

Kaczorowska (2012), p. 481.

Crawford (2002), p. 196.

Ibid., p. 197.

Ibid.

Chorzów Factory (Germany v. Poland), 1928, PCIJ Reports Series A No. 17, p. 47.

Sands et al. (2012), p. 714.

Crawford (2002), p. 295.

This example will be examined in more depth in this chapter.

Fitzmaurice (2007), p. 1019.

Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill (2010), New York Times, 3 January 2013, http://​topics.​nytimes.​com/​top/​reference/​timestopics/​subjects/​o/​oil_​spills/​gulf_​of_​mexico_​2010/​index.​html.

See: Beyerlin and Marauhn (2011), p. 442.

As at September 2014.

Crawford (2002), p. 203.

Farber (2008), p. 413.

Mitigation measures are excluded from the analysis of serving as means of compensation. Mitigation measures refer to actively minimizing climate change. These measures thus address the harmful behavior of each state, also those states that are damaged by climate change but still contribute to it, even if this contribution is only very limited.

Rimmer (2011), p. 39.

The UNFCCC claims technology transfer in article 4.5 UNFCCC: The developed country Parties and other developed Parties included in Annex II shall take all practicable steps to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, the transfer of, or access to, environmentally sound technologies and know-how to other Parties, particularly developing country Parties, to enable them to implement the provisions of the Convention. In this process, the developed country Parties shall support the development and enhancement of endogenous capacities and technologies of developing country Parties. Other Parties and organizations in a position to do so may also assist in facilitating the transfer of such technologies.

And likewise the Kyoto Protocol stipulates in article 10 (c) that the parties shall […] Cooperate in the promotion of effective modalities for the development, application and diffusion of, and take all practicable steps to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, the transfer of, or access to, environmentally sound technologies, know-how, practices and processes pertinent to climate change, in particular to developing countries, including the formulation of policies and programs for the effective transfer of environmentally sound technologies that are publicly owned or in the public domain and the creation of an enabling environment for the private sector, to promote and enhance the transfer of, and access to, environmentally sound technologies; […].

See generally on the issue: Rimmer (2011); Littleton (2008); Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000); Taubman et al. (2012); on the general relation of environmental protection, sustainability, and international trade, see for a short overview: Sanden and Schomerus (2012), pp. 41–51.

On this notion, see: Tomuschat (2011), pp. 4, 5.

Ibid., p. 5.

Ibid., p. 8.

Global Carbon Atlas, http://​www.​globalcarbonatla​s.​org/​?​q=​en/​emissions.

http://​www.​ucsusa.​org/​global_​warming/​science_​and_​impacts/​science/​each-countrys-share-of-co2.​html.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2012), http://​www.​epa.​gov/​climatechange/​emissions/​globalghg.​html.

See also: Voigt (2008), p. 19.

Tomuschat (2011), p. 27.

Fitzmaurice (2007), p. 1020.

Zemanek (2000), pp. 220, 221; Corfu Channel Case (U.K. v. Albania), Judgment, ICJ Reports 1949, p. 35.

Fisher and Ury (1983), pp. 68–88.

Tomuschat (2011), pp. 26, 27.

On this notion, see: Reis (2011), p. 9.

Sands et al. (2012), p. 204.

Marshall (2012), http://​www.​newscientist.​com/​article/​dn22609-doha-summit-launches-climate-damage-aid.​html.

For further reading on the particular cases, see: Haritz (2011), p. 18.