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Erschienen in:
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2018 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

2. Urban Environmental Governance: Global Experience

verfasst von : K. V. Raju, A. Ravindra, S Manasi, K. C. Smitha, Ravindra Srinivas

Erschienen in: Urban Environmental Governance in India

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter is intended to present strategic approaches and an overview of urban environmental governance from global perspective. It provides a brief overview of the evolution of global environmental governance concomitantly the interface with urban transformation. The chapter briefly discusses the complex issues associated with environment from a global economic growth and urbanisation lens. This evolution is related to environmental governance in terms of practice with a broader context of sustainable development which was initially associated with developed countries and later by developing countries. Further, the chapter proceeds to highlight the nexus between ‘urbanisation’ and ‘environment’ in terms of how it has drastically changed the quality of urban life in India and argues that environmental issues are inextricably linked to urbanisation.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Introduction
Nächstes Kapitel Emerging Urban Environment Governance Models/Approaches
Fußnoten
1
3.5 billion people at present live in cities, and by 2055 an estimated 75% of the world population will live in urban areas. Cities occupy 2% of the earth land accounting for over 70% of both energy consumption and carbon emission (http://​www.​sustainablecitie​s2013.​com/​).
 
2
By 2025, there will be 37 megacities with populations of over ten million; 22 of those cities will be in Asia (www.​sustainablecitie​s2013.​com).
 
3
As per the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of UN, demand for food supplies, feed and fibre would grow by 70% by 2050 (State and Outlook 2010: 142).
 
4
Please see Annexure Table 2.7 for more details on the classification of environmental and ecological hazards suffered by cities of the world.
 
5
See Annexure Table 2.10 on environmental threats across different regions of the world.
 
6
Refer Annexure for Table 2.7 which provides a glimpse of the global environmental governance through treaties, conventions and organisations.
 
7
Refer Annexure for Table 2.8 on the evolution of global reform initiatives with respect to global environmental governance.
 
8
There are more than 500 MEAs registered with the UN, including 61 atmosphere-related; 155 biodiversity-related; 179 related to chemicals, hazardous substances and waste; 46 land conventions; and 196 conventions that are broadly related to issues dealing with water (Najam et al. 2006: 30).
 
9
According to 2011 census, 90 million people have been added to Indian urban areas since the previous census in 2001 (Vishwanath et al. 2013: 15).
 
10
Indian cities as drivers of economic growth contribute 60% of national income (Pandey et al. 2006: 208).
 
11
Indian urbanisation pattern is often referred to as ‘agglomeration economies’. As per the Agglomeration Index, Indian urbanisation has reached to 52% (ibid: 24).
 
12
Total urban population has increased more than ten times from 26 million to 285 million, an increase of 28% by 2001. An increase from 23% in 1991 to 65% in 1991 is found in respect of Class I cities in India (MoEF 2009: 134). Similarly, as per 2001 census, there are 35 million plus cities in India (ibid 136).
 
13
Total slum population in the country is 40.3 million comprising 22.6% of the total urban population of cities or towns (MoEF 2009: 140).
 
14
The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UNHSP) states that 43% of urban residents in the developing countries like Brazil and India live in slums.
 
15
On 2.4% of land area, India sustains 16.7 of the world population exerting a tremendous pressure on its natural resources (MoEF 2011).
 
16
The number of million plus cities has drastically increased from 75 in 1950 to 447 in 2011, while simultaneously there is an increase in the average size of the world’s 100 largest cities from 2.0 to 7.6 million. By 2020, it is projected that there would be 527 cities with a population of more than one million (UNHSP 2011: 2).
 
17
Asia constitutes the second largest urbanised region with 42.2% of the population living in urban areas which is slightly more than Africa’s 40% (UN-HABITAT 2010: 6). It is further estimated that between 2010 and 2020, a total of 411 million people will be added to Asian cities or 60% of the growth in the world’s urban population (ibid).
 
18
The number of million plus cities has increased from 23 in 1991 to 35 as per 2001 census. Population growth is recorded from 19% in 1951 to 33% in 1991 (Maiti and Aggrawal 2005: 279).
 
19
There is a continuous increase in urban population from 11% (in 1901) to 17% in 1951 to 28% in 2001. Similarly, nearly 60% of the urban population live in Class I cities (Maiti and Aggrawal 2005: 278).
 
20
See Annexure Table.
 
21
As per Census 2001, the share of rural-urban migration population constituted 16.4% in India. Especially, Karnataka accounts for 11.9% of rural-urban migration.
 
22
As per Census 2001, there is an upward trend of migration in Karnataka between 1991 and 2001 which is 34%. Rural-urban migration is basically labour migration (Roychowdhury et al. 2012: 13–16).
 
23
India constitutes one of the ten megacentres of biodiversity (Singh 1995: 57).
 
24
The number of Class I cities has increased from 24 in 1901 to 393 in 2001 (Kundu 2006: 29).
 
25
‘Migration can be seen as livelihood and income diversifying criteria’. Economic reasons constitute one of the major factors for rural-urban migration in search of income-generating opportunities in metro cities (Roychowdhury et al. 2012: 31–33).
 
26
As per Census 2001, 36 million intrastate migrations to urban centres have been observed (MoEF 2009: 139).
 
27
As per Census 2001, 27.8% of Indian population lives in urban centres (MoEF 2009: 134).
 
28
Refer to Table 2.11 for more details on the status of urban basic services in India.
 
29
The estimated slum population has increased from 46.26 million in 1991 to 61.82 million in 2001 showing a growth of 15.56% (CSO 2011: 123). The NSSO data for July 2008 to June 2009 reveal that 49,000 slums exist in urban areas of India (including both notified and non-notified) and they have increased to 50.6% for 2002 (ibid: 123).
 
30
Often ‘informal sector’ or ‘unorganised sector’ has been used synonymously. Those employed in the informal sector do not have job security or social security benefits.
 
31
Informal sector jobs constitute (i) daily wage in construction, rickshaw pulling, hawking and street vending, jobs in textile/garment sector, carpet making, agarbathi/cigarette/beedi making or garbage collection.
 
32
UN-HABITAT (2009: 109) defines poverty as one of the social exclusionary approaches which refer to the ‘phenomenon whereby individuals or groups are unable to fully participate in political processes’. In India, particularly, poverty is measured in terms of consumption and levels of income. The study by Satterthwaite (2003) provides a broader definition of poverty by including eight parameters which include (i) inadequate income, (ii) risky assets, (iii) inadequate shelter, (iv) inadequate provision of public infrastructure, (v) inadequate provision of basic amenities, (vi) no safety net to ensure basic consumption, (vii) inadequate protection of rights of the poor and (viii) powerlessness and voicelessness of the poor and lack of means to ensure accountability from donors, public agencies and NGOs.
 
33
Satterthwaite et al. (2011). Engaging with the urban poor and their organisations for poverty, reduction and urban governance, an issue paper for the United Nations Development Programme.
 
34
Most of the slum dwellers/informal settlements are located near drainage channels, under bridges, near open waste sites or low-lying areas.
 
35
It is estimated that over the next 20 years, the global demand for water will increase by 40% while by more than 50% in the developing countries (State and Outlook 2010: 143). Similarly, an average annual investment would amount to USD 772 billion for water and waste water management around the world by 2050 (ibid).
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Urban Environmental Governance: Global Experience
verfasst von
K. V. Raju
A. Ravindra
S Manasi
K. C. Smitha
Ravindra Srinivas
Copyright-Jahr
2018
Buch
Urban Environmental Governance in India

Print ISBN: 978-3-319-73467-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-73468-2

Copyright-Jahr: 2018

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73468-2_2