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2018 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

Basic Principles: “Sustainability” in Context

verfasst von : Kim Sorvig, J. William Thompson

Erschienen in: Sustainable Landscape Construction

Verlag: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics

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Abstract

Concern for the health of outdoor places is a central theme in landscape architecture and landscape contracting, and has been since long before “sustainability” was a word. “Stewardship” is almost the mantra of the American Society of Landscape Architects. It is a concern shared by many members of related disciplines like architecture, planning, public-lands administration, and horticulture, as well as by private gardeners. Yet in translating this concern to the materials and methods of making landscapes, there frequently seems to be a disconnect between ethical intentions and practical actions.

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Nächstes Kapitel Keep Healthy Sites Healthy

Robert France, “The Promise and the Reality of Landscape Architecture in Sustaining Na-ture,” Harvard Graduate School of Design newsletter (Spring–Summer 2003).

One of the latest instances of this persistent theme is Heidi Hohmann and Joern Langhorst, “Landscape Architecture: An Apocalyptic Manifesto,” PDF downloadable from www.public.iastate.edu/~isitdead.

Meg Calkins, “Green Building Practice Survey,” Landscape and Urban Planning 73 (Oct 2005): 29.

Sonja Bisbee Wulff and Colorado Public Interest Research Group, “Vast Open Spaces Vanish-ing,” Fort Collins Coloradoan, 28 Dec 1998, 1.

This definition is so widespread that its original author is hard to determine. It was used in the widely circulated report by the World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, ed. by Norway’s prime minister, Gro H. Brundtland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). A similar but expanded definition is given in a review of sustainability concepts in John D. Peine, ed., Ecosystem Management for Sustainability (Boca Raton FL: Lewis, 1999), 3: “Sustainable development integrates economic, environmental and social values during planning; distributes benefits equitably across socioeconomic strata and gender upon implementation; and ensures that opportunities for continuing development remain undiminished to future generations.” The ten published sets of sustainability principles reviewed (Peine’s Tables 1–10) stress the dynamic, boundary-crossing, and semi-predictable qualities of living systems; the need for coordination and teamwork; and the value of open public involvement in sustainability decisions.

In “Nature/Culture/Words/Landscapes” (Landscape Journal 21, no. 2 [Jan 2002]: 1–14), I argue that Jackson used linguistic evidence very selectively to bolster his contention that landscape absolutely excludes any sort of wild, unconstructed place. His view is popular, but in my consid-ered opinion, false, dangerous, and self-serving.

Robert L. Thayer Jr., “The Experience of Sustainable Design,” Landscape Journal 8 (1989): 101. Quoted in Robert France’s very useful article (above), “The Promise and the Reality of Landscape Architecture in Sustaining Nature.” The part of the CELA definition that may be questionable is the idea of increasing species diversity—valid for damaged sites, but potentially damaging if applied to healthy ones.

This recognition of human dependence on more-than-human causes can be viewed either scientifically or religiously. Saying that we can exist only because of nature’s “services” is tanta-mount to saying that we exist by the grace of the divine. Unfortunately, there are too many literalists who re-act to any mention of nature as pagan and, on the other side, literalists who refuse to acknowledge the mystery that still surrounds all existence.

The principle was worked out by a group assembled by UNESCO and released in March 2005. A PDF of the report is available at http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001395/139578e.pdf.

“There is no doubt . . . that sustainability has been taken up as a rallying cry by two completely different factions and has entirely opposite meanings for each,” ac-cording to James Steele, Sustainable Architecture: Principles, Paradigms, and Case Studies (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997), 22. Steele calls the concept a contradiction in terms; his two factions are, loosely, green capitalists (the Earth as resources to manage) and green socialists (the Earth as the focus of social reform).

Tristan Roberts, “When It’s Greener to Build,” EBN, Oct 2007, 2.

BASMAA, Grow It! The Less-Toxic Garden (San Francisco: Bay Area Stormwater Management Agen-cies Association, 1997).

For thoughtful critique of the potential for authoritarianism in pursuit of ecological goals, see Randolph Hester, Design for Ecological Democracy (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2006). At the far extreme, an attempt to equate all ecologists with Nazism is analyzed in Kim Sorvig, “Natives and Nazis: An Imaginary Conspiracy in Ecological Design,” Landscape Journal 13, no. 1 (1994): 58–61.

I was SO hoping, with poetic justice in mind, that the storm named Jose would decimate Mar-a-Lago!

EBN devoted almost the entire Nov 2013 issue to resilient design principles. Alex Wilson, founder of EBN, was the first to propose “passive survivability,” in EBN, Dec 2005, 2; the magazine covered the topic in detail in the May 2006 issue.

To put things in perspective, recall that the Second Law of Thermodynamics guarantees that over the long term nothing is sustainable!

William Stanley Jevons, The Coal Question, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan and Company, 1866), 123.

The concept also applies in agriculture; see Frank A. Ward and Manuel Pulido-Velazquez, “Water Conservation in Irrigation Can Increase Water Use,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 47 (Nov 2008): 18215–20.

A good source for contemporary understanding of the Jevons Paradox is J. Polimeni et al., The Myth of Resource Efficiency: The Jevons Paradox, rev. ed. (London: Earthscan, 2009). I’ve borrowed their title for this section heading. In the foreword, Dr. Joseph A. Tainter, an anthropologist widely published on social complexity, social collapse, and energy issues, asserts that “voluntary restraint or any other laissez-faire approach” cannot solve the paradox. I respectfully submit that without a voluntary component, any imposed solution will ultimately fail.

See www.sinsofgreenwashing.org. There is some debate about alcoholic beverages and gluten; they can be contaminated by processing, or by cheap grain alcohol additions. If you prefer, think of this Sin as “no DDT used” but DDT is banned.

The Course of Landscape Architecture by Christophe Girot (London: Thames & Hudson, 2016). The comment about “instrumentalization” is from a LAM review of the book (Jan 2017, pp. 136–46) by Julia Czerniak; it’s not clear whether she agrees with Girot on this point, since she objects to Girot’s “exaggeration of the disparity between the concerns of ecology and those of design.”

These evaluations are not intended to be equivalent to instrumented scientific measurement (such as energy inputs and outputs, for example), although they may be based on such studies.

Allyson Wendt, “Regional Real Estate Service to List Green Features,” EBN, Nov 2006, 5; Tristan Roberts, “Appraising Green in Vancouver,” EBN, May 2007, 4; Ra-chel Navaro, “New Green Training Program for Real Estate,” EBN, Oct 2007, 5.

Tristan Roberts, “Higher Occupancy, Higher Lease Rates for Green Buildings,” EBN, May 2008, 5; Nadav Malin, “Non-Green Office Buildings Sacrifice 8% in Rent Revenues,” EBN, Dec 2010, 3.

Andrea Ward, “Preliminary Study Supports LEED Productivity Benefits,” EBN, Jan 2011, 4; “Productivity and Green Buildings,” EBN, Oct 2004, 1.

Nadav Malin, “Investing in the Environment: The Financial Industry’s Approach to Green Building,” EBN, Nov 2007, 1; Candace Pearson, “Retrofits a Better Bet Than Stocks and Bonds, Says Analysis,” EBN, Jul 2013, 12. (The retrofits in question were to achieve green performance; as investments, they beat Wall Street’s average by 28.6 percent.)

Interview in “Living Architecture Monitor” (Green Roofs for Healthy Cities newsletter), Winter 2016, 8–9.

Nadav Malin, “High Perceived Cost of Green Persists, Says Survey,” EBN, Jan 2008, 2.

Candace Pearson, “Entry-Level Green Doesn’t Cost Extra, U.K. Report Finds,” EBN, Oct 2014, 14.

Allyson Wendt, “Study Finds Quick Payback for LEED Investments,” EBN, Nov 2008 (news brief on a study by Moseley Architects, Richmond VA).

Malin, “Non-Green Office Buildings Sacrifice 8% in Rent Revenues.”

EBN has covered increasing investor interest extensively, in Dec 2012, 3; Jan 2013, 3; Dec 2013, 3; and May 2014, 19. Not only individual projects but also real estate trusts, whose value depends on multiple properties, show higher returns when green. EBN, Jul 2015, 16.

EBN, “Productivity and Green Buildings,” 11.

Meenakshi Rao et al., “Assessing the Relationship Among Urban Trees, Nitrogen Dioxide, and Respiratory Health,” Environmental Pollution 194 (Nov 2014): 96–104. Unfortunately, like most Elsevier publications, available only as pay-per-view.

Perry Hystad et al., “Residential Greenness and Birth Outcomes: Evaluating the Influence of Spatially Correlated Built-Environment Factors,” Environmental Health Perspectives 122, no. 10 (Oct 2014); full text at https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1308049/.

J. F. Benson and M. H. Roe, eds., Landscape and Sustainability (London: Spon Press, 2000). Chap-ters 5–9 are specifically about the use of the landscape perspective as a basis for a variety of policy measures well outside of “landscape issues.”

I owe this observation to Benoit Mandelbrot, the discoverer of fractals, who commented on it in a lecture in New Mexico, probably twenty years ago.

Unless otherwise noted, statistics and quotes in this section are from Meg Calkins, “LEEDing the Way: A Look at the Way Landscape Architects Are Using the LEED Green Building Rating System,” LAM, May 2001, 36–44.

In fact, if they subscribe to Newt Gingrich’s theories, any environmental limits on their right to develop constitutes a “taking” and gives them the right to sue whoever established that limit as a legal requirement. The US Supreme Court has repeatedly ruled otherwise, but this ideology of opportunism persists.

Erin Weaver, “Home Size, Appliance Glut Cancel Out Efficiency Gains,” EBN, Apr 2013, 35; also Paula Melton, “Efficiency Gains Nullified by Appliances and Electronics,” EBN, May 2012, 4. It is difficult to determine whether green residences are bloating equally to conventional homes (+30 percent since 2000), but for at least a part of the market, those who can afford luxury salve their consciences by including green features.

As McHarg himself growled to me twenty-plus years ago, “It’s astonishing the bloody thing hasn’t been superseded.”

The terms “Permaculture” and “Xeriscape” have both been trademarked to ensure that they are not abused. Like all other trademarks referenced in this book, they remain the property of their respective owners. The success of trademarking landscape design approaches as a defensive strategy has been mixed, because most theories are recombinant, borrowing from and overlapping with others.

Allyson Wendt and Nadav Malin, “Integrated Design Meets the Real World,” EBN, May 2010, 1.

Candace Pearson, “GSA Links High-Performance Outcomes to Integrated Design,” EBN, Jul 2015, 13.

Sandra Mendler, ed., The HOK Guidebook to Sustainable Design (Washington DC: HOK Architects, 1998), iv–vi.

Ibid., iv.

In this regard, many architecture firms are either ahead of landscape ones, or simply more vocal about it. Arup, SOM, Gehry (whose focus is on complex structural coordination as much as, or more than, on sustainability), and many others recognize that if the built environment must change, the methods of envisioning and realizing require new teamwork.

One of the best sites for detailed information and research supporting these allegations is www.ejrc.cau.edu, the Environmental Justice Resource Center (EJRC) at Clark Atlanta University. It offers extensive links (many archived, others nonfunctional or dated) to hundreds of other sources. The information in this section is primarily compiled from EJRC and a few of its main links. As of 2017, there appeared to be difficulties with links to EJRC from any other site, though directly entering the URL (above) still works to reach the archives.

Environmental justice applies to transportation facilities, many of which are risky and polluting. There is some evidence that EJ considerations have helped shape the Federal Highway Administration’s recent shift toward “context-sensitive design” of roads, discussed on p. 240.

Dorceta Taylor, “The State of Diversity in Environmental Organizations,” 2011 (original publication unclear). Available from www.diversegreen.org, but only by joining the group’s mailing list. Taylor, a professor at the University of Michigan’s School of Natural Resources and Environment, is also the author of two books noted in the resource list.

Kim Sorvig, “The Wilds of South Central,” LAM, Apr 2002, reports on one of Hester and Edmiston’s successful projects and on demographic research into cultural support for nature conservation.

Randolph T. Hester Jr., Design for Ecological Democracy (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2006), 6–7. The bibliography of this book lists extensive, landscape-specific resources on community participatory methods and environmental justice, including many important articles by Hester himself.

Reported in Jennifer Reut, “Open Invitation,” LAM, Oct 2016, 66–74.

Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: Norton, 1997). Diamond’s follow-up volume, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (New York: Viking, 2005), details how societies that fail to adapt to local ecological assets have collapsed. Both are required reading in my University of New Mexico seminar on sustainable landscapes.

See Adrian Wong, “How Correlated Are Crude Oil Prices to Finished Petroleum Products?,” Seeking Alpha, 15 Feb 2015, http://seekingalpha.com/article/2918546-how-correlated-are-crude-oil-prices-to-finished-petroleum-products.

Rob Thayer made a particularly convincing presentation of these contextual threats at the Sustainable Landscapes Conference, Sacramento CA, Feb 2004.

For specifics, see the nonpartisan Natural Resources Defense Council’s magazine onEarth, Spring 2003, esp. 10 and 34, and www.nrdc.org/bushrecord/.

Vinnee Tong, “Buying into Green Building,” Santa Fe New Mexican, 8 Mar 2007, C-7. Cites “extra” cost for green features as up to 15 percent. This figure is more than dou-ble the more common figures (see next note) and appears to originate with building-industry conservatives.

H. M. Bernstein and M. A. Russo, “Green Multifamily and Single Family Homes: Growth in a Recov-ering Market” (McGraw-Hill Construction Research & Analytics, 2014), MHC_Analytics@McGraw-Hill.com. The authors, employees of MHC, were both LEED AP certified profes-sionals.

“About Green Homes,” 1 Jul 2016, www.usgbc.org/articles/benefits-green-homebuilding.

Earthtalk, “Do Buildings with Green Features Cost More?” Santa Fe New Mexican, 8 Mar 2007, C-7. Unlike industry reports, this one analyzes life-cycle savings, not just capital costs.

Brad Knickerbocker, “The Changing Face of America,” Christian Science Monitor, 15 Oct 2006.

Gillian Flaccus, “Hispanics Take Strong Stands on Environment,” Associated Press syndi-cated report, 13 Oct 2006. See related information in Sorvig, “Wilds of South Central.”

See http://vertical-visions.com/nps.php, which discusses a fatal October 1999 protest against a National Park Service prohibition of “base jumping” (parachuting off cliffs).

Paula Melton, “Spurred by Chemical Industry, Ohio Moves Anti-LEED Bill Forward,” EBN, Apr 2014, 14.

See EBN news briefs for May 2006, 2.

This matches well with the work of other researchers, particularly from Canada, who have found that in developed countries, construction, maintenance, and decommissioning of buildings uses over 40 percent of all annual energy. (The DOE statistics group energy by economic segment—residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation. Mazria’s analysis recognizes that all segments use buildings, and regroups the statistics accordingly.)

Mazria’s figures, quoted in EBN, Apr 2016, 1.

A 2007 UN report reached similar conclusions: United Nations Environment Programme, “Buildings and Climate Change: Status, Challenges, and Opportunities,” available for download at www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx0916xPA-BuildingsClimate.pdf.

Very similar goals, released in 1995 and targeted for achievement by 2003, were the National Building Goals, from the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the National Science and Technology Council. They aimed for a 50 percent reduction in operation and energy costs and in waste and pollution, along with a 50 percent increase in durability, across the construction industry. Available for download at http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build95/PDF/b95068.pdf. The official title is “National Construction Sector Goals,” prepared by the Civil Engineering Research Foundation, Washington DC, July 1995, and issued under the identification number NIST-GCR-95-680.

See “Progress on 2030 Goals, Ten Years Later,” EBN, Apr 2016, 4.

The first edition’s source was “Study: Land Use Affects Weather,” Associated Press syndicated report, 9 Dec 1998. The study’s author, Roger Pielke, has a research group with many valuable publications related to land use and climate change. See http://cires.colorado.edu/research/research-groups/roger-pielke-sr-group.

Climate effects of land clearance (or landscape transformation, or land-use change) have been estimated by several expert groups. The estimates are listed in the citations that follow, in order from low to high. Some estimate CO₂ (or all greenhouse gases) released when land is cleared; others include direct warming and drying effects, such as exposure of soil to sunlight; and some summarize their findings in terms of the relative importance of fuel burning versus land clearing. The slow but extensive land changes wrought by prehistoric and early historical agriculture are also considered to have raised CO₂ levels, but these figure in only one discussion of the issue. Obviously, these estimates are not completely comparable, but all indicate that the relationship is significant.

15–20 percent: The lowest estimate comes from a 1997 World Meteorological Organization paper called “Common Questions About Climate Change,” which states, “Land use changes are responsible for 15 to 20% of current carbon dioxide emissions.” This useful document is downloadable (in English) at www.siame.gov.co/siame/documentos/documentacion/mdl/03_VF_Bibliografia/General%20CDM/Climate%20change.pdf. Pages are unnumbered; the statement quoted appears on the twelfth page (title page included).

23 percent: Cynthia Rosenzweig and Daniel Hillel, “Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food Supply,” Consequences (newsletter of the Global Change Research Information Office) 1, no. 2 (Summer 1995): agricultural emissions, 15 percent, plus land-use changes, 8 percent.

24 percent: Columbia University’s CIESIN (Center for International Earth Science Information Network) and NASA’s SEDAC (Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center) ascribe 24 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions to forestry practices and land-use change, including soil disturbance. See www.ciesin.columbia.edu/.

32 percent: The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) states that 2.5 Gt (gigatons, or million tons) of CO₂ are generated by landscape transformation, and 5.2 Gt by fuel combustion. This translates to 32 percent from land clearing and related changes. See www.ipcc.ch/.

50 percent or more: In an interview with Rebecca Lindsey of NASA’s Earth Observatory (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/DeepFreeze/, 17 May 2005), Gordon Bonan, a climate modeler for the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder CO, stated, “Land cover change is as big an influence on regional and local climate and weather as doubled atmospheric carbon diox-ide—perhaps even bigger.” Bonan’s findings agree with Pielke’s, who he credits for “bringing people around to the importance” of landscape change as a factor in global climate change.

Tim Flannery, in The Weather Makers (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2005), especially pp. 28 and 66, notes the likelihood that very early agriculture, from about 8,000 years ago to 1800 CE, when the Industrial Revolution took hold, increased global CO₂ levels from 160 parts per million (ppm) to 280. By comparison, the rise caused by industrialization is from 280 to 380 ppm, today’s level. Clearing, burning, rice-paddy flooding, and other farming activities are thus believed to have created “The Long Summer,” the unusually warm and stable period in which all agricultural humanity has lived for the past many millennia. If this is accurate, land clearance produced a 120-ppm increase prior to industrialization, and 15 to 32 percent of the 100-ppm increase since industrialization. This would mean that land use is responsible for 61 to 69 percent of human-caused greenhouse gas increases.

The final report can be downloaded from www.eea.europa.eu/about-us/governance/scientific-committee/sc-opinions/opinions-on-scientific-issues/sc-opinion-on-greenhouse-gas/view. It was primarily concerned with conversion of land to produce biofuels; it is unclear whether land-conversion carbon emissions were included, but if not, this report would overstate the emissions benefit of using biofuels.

The report summary, and updates concerning lawsuits and investigations since its original 2007 release, are available from http://blog.ucsusa.org/tag/exxonclimatescandal#.WLRj000zUdU. It particularly links ExxonMobil money to “bought” science from the George C. Marshall Institute, the Annapolis Center for Science-Based Public Policy, the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow, the Heartland Institute, and other climate-change deniers. This public disinformation campaign was in addition to over $60 million spent on lobbying politicians directly; one “expert” associated with it, Phil Cooney, went from an oil-trade association to the President’s Council on Environmental Quality and then to ExxonMobil. Similar undermining tactics have been aimed against many specific sustainable technologies that threaten oil interests.

Wind and hydropower are nonfuel energy sources, driven by solar energy; nuclear power does not rely on combustion, and uranium is not a fuel in the conventional sense.

Paula Melton, “Our Buildings Are Killing Our Oceans,” EBN, Apr 2016, 25.

For details, see www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/land_use/index.htm, “IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry.” The mechanisms by which land clearance and deforestation affect climate are common knowledge; what is new is putting these effects together.

See Flannery, Weather Makers. Other CO₂-exchange mechanisms involve the oceans, oceanic plankton, and carbon-based rocks, such as limestone. These hold far larger volumes of car-bon than do plants and soil, but it is the relative speed of the cycles of uptake and release that makes vegetation and soil the most important site of atmospheric CO₂ exchange. Fossil-fuel combustion is, of course, plant based.

Two identically titled books make a compelling case for the belief that soil management is the key to under-standing any society’s rise or fall: Edward Hyams’s Soil and Civilization (New York: HarperCollins, 1976), and Milton Whitney’s Soil and Civilization (New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1925). A third book with this title, by Elyne Mitchell, is an Australian work. Although out of print, it can be obtained electronically through http://soilandhealth.org/copyrighted-book/soil-and-civilization/.

“Clearance” does not need to be total to cause most of the warming effects noted. To be truly accurate, clearance should be discussed in percentage terms. One hundred percent clearance would mean bare soil. The baseline (0 percent clearance) is biomass, above- and below ground, that is equivalent to the region’s most mature successional vegetation. Deliberate removal of 20 percent of this mass would be “20 percent clearance.” If 100 percent clearance causes x amount of warming, 20 percent clearance probably causes similar effects at something like 20 percent intensity. There is probably a straightforward relationship between total biomass and the amount of carbon released by clearance, at least for a given forest or ecosystem type. These relationships cannot be quantified without further research, and are probably variable by region. Nonetheless, even one rule-of-thumb formula would greatly advance the ability to value vegetation cover for its effects on climate.

Alex Wilson and Rachel Navaro, “Driving to Green Buildings: The Transportation Energy Intensity of Buildings,” EBN, Sep 2007.

Excerpt from Alex de Sherbinin, “A CIESIN Thematic Guide to Land-Use and Land-Cover Change (LUCC),” http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/tg/guide_frame.jsp?rd=LU&ds=1, joint project of CIESIN and the Land-Use and Land-Cover Change International Project Office, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium; see the website for further details.

Paul Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce (New York: Harper-Collins, 1993), 21.

Associated Press, “Housing Construction Booms; Industrial Output Flat in January,” Santa Fe New Mexican, 18 Feb 1999.

For the full visual impact of forest clearance in the United States, see comparative maps in Smithsonian, Sep 1999, 22. For a global deforestation map, see www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/forests/our-disappearing-forests/.

“Lost to agriculture” is the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimate; it is not specifically about clearing land that previously supported native vegetation communities. The 1.5 mil-lion-acre estimate is based on the US NRCS National Resources Inventory, which shows that in 1997, 98 million acres of US land had been developed, a 34 percent increase since 1982. Assuming the same rate each year (the rate is actually increasing), this would mean 1.6 million acres developed each year. The 500,000-acre estimate is based on new housing starts, commercial construction, and new roads statistics from various US agencies. These tend not to include accurate areas for landscape around the facilities.

Jessica Boehland, “California Builders Pay for Degrading Air Quality,” EBN, Feb 2006, 3. See also the San Joaquin Valley Air Pollution Control District’s website, www.valleyair.org.

A good place to start is Andrea Ward and Alex Wilson, “Design for Adaptation: Living in a Cli-mate-Changing World,” EBN, Sep 2009, 1, 8–15.

See Candace Pearson, “Analysis: Economy, Environment Merge to Speed Global Decline,” EBN, Aug 2013, 18.

See “Projected CREAT Climate Scenarios,” www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=a840e485bd5e495d8e72a32a9b3dc4a2.

Read (and sign) the document at https://lafoundation.org/news-events/2016-summit/new-landscape-declaration/.

Mahesh Ramanujam, “Staying Committed After the U.S. Withdrawal from the Paris Agree-ment,” 1 Jun 2017, www.usgbc.org/articles/staying-committed-after-us-withdrawal-paris-agreement.

Statistics cited in Charles Lockwood, “Save the Shade,” Hemispheres Magazine (United Airlines), Sep 2006, 60–63.

Wade Rawlins, “Scientists Test Trees in Fight vs. CO₂,” Raleigh (NC) News & Observer, 28 Jul 2007.

Study by FPInnovations, a nonprofit research initiative of the Canadian timber industry; reported in Brent Ehrlich, “Engineering a Wood Revolution,” EBN, Aug 2013, 1.

Earthtalk, “Which Trees Best Combat Global Warming?” Environment, 12 Feb 2007. See the research center’s website, www.fs.fed.us/ne/syracuse/.

Paula Melton, “Biggest Trees Sequester the Most Carbon, Study Reveals,” EBN, Mar 2014, 16.

Chris J. Hanley, “Carbon Trading Creates Questionable Deals,” Associated Press syndi-cated report, 22 Oct 2006. For US state emissions totals and per-capita rankings, see www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/state/. To calculate your own CO₂ footprint, try the several online calculators—but be aware they assume you heat with oil or electricity (no solar, wood, etc.), drive a gas or diesel vehicle (sorry, Prius owners), and so on. Keep searching; there must be good ones out there. The IPCC recently estimated that increasing the cost of gasoline by one dollar per gallon would fund stabilization of greenhouse gases by 2030; this cost has also been compared to about 3 percent of economic growth worldwide. Marc Kaufman, “Scientists Put Price Tag on Strategies to Combat Global Warming,” Washington Post, 3 May 2007.

100

“First Look,” Consumer Reports, Jan 2007, 7.

101

Lewis Ziska, weed ecologist, USDA Crop Systems and Global Change Laboratory, quoted in Life (author unknown), 25 Aug 2006.

102

Study by J. Dunne, NOAA, published in Nature Climate Change, cited in EBN, Apr 2013, 27.

103

Zhanqing Li et al., “Long-Term Impacts of Aerosols on the Vertical Development of Clouds and Precipitation,” Nature Geoscience 4 (2011): 888–94; see also University of Maryland, U.S. Department of Energy’s Brookhaven National Laboratory, and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, “Rising Air Pollution Worsens Drought, Flooding UMD-Led Study Shows,” www.bnl.gov/newsroom/news.php?a=111345, cited in EBN, Aug 2014, 4.

104

John Roach, “Summer Storms to Create New Ozone Holes as Earth Warms?,” National Geographic News, 26 Jul 2012, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/07/120726-storms-ozone-hole-global-warming-environment-science/.

105

Bettina Boxall, “West’s Trees Dying Faster as Temperatures Rise,” Los Angeles Times, 23 Jan 2009. This author also won a Pulitzer Prize for reporting on climate-induced increases in wildfire.

106

Dave Gram, “Climate Change Blamed for Fading Foliage,” Associated Press, 21 Oct 2007. Online at www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/10/20/AR2007102000534_pf.html.

107

Marc Kaufman, “Katrina, Rita Caused Forestry Disaster,” Washington Post, 16 Nov 2007.

108

J. “A Significant Upward Shift in Plant Species Optimum Elevation During the 20th Century,” Science 320, no. 5884(27 Jun 2008): 1768–71. Online at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18583610.

109

Jessica Boehland, “USDA Resists Updating Plant Hardiness Zones to Reflect Warming Trend,” EBN, Aug 2006, 4.

110

See http://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/phzmweb/AboutWhatsNew.aspx. The Arbor Day Foundation has also updated its maps, available at www.arborday.org/media/zonechanges.cfm.

111

See www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/2660948/Kyoto-protocol-fails-to-save-the-Japanese-citys-famous-Zen-gardens.html.

112

Rachel Kaplan and Stephen Kaplan have explored this concept in several books, including The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

113

E. O. Wilson, Biophilia (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1986).

114

William Browning, Catherine Ryan, and Joseph Clancy, “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design,” Terrapin Bright Green, www.terrapinbrightgreen.com/reports/14-patterns/, available free to download. The site also discusses economics of biophilic design.

115

Alex Wilson, “Biophilia in Practice: Buildings That Connect People with Nature,” EBN, Jul 2006.

116

Robert L. Thayer Jr., “The Experience of Sustainable Landscapes,” Landscape Journal 8, no. 2 (Fall 1989): 101–10.

117

Joan Nassauer, “Messy Ecosystems, Orderly Frames,” Landscape Journal 14, no. 2 (Fall 1995): 161–70.

118

William MacElroy and Daniel Winterbottom, “Toward a New Garden,” Critiques of Built Works of Landscape Architecture, LSU School of Landscape Architecture (Fall 1997): 10–14.

119

William Thompson, “Cleansing Art,” LAM, Jan 1997, 70.

120

The Landschaftspark has been described in many publications; an interesting perspective is Hugh Bailey, “Decaying Factories Become Vital Tourist Attractions,” Connecticut Post, 6 Dec 2014, www.ctpost.com/local/article/Decaying-factories-become-vital-tourist-5925249.php.

121

Participants in the Committee for Eco-Revelatory Design were Brenda Brown, Terry Harkness, Douglas Johnston, Beth Randall, and Robert Riley.

122

Peter Whoriskey, “Louisiana Erosion Project Calls for River Diversion,” Washington Post, 2 May 2007, 5.

123

Cain Burdeau, Associated Press, “New Land in Eroding Louisiana Wetlands Provides Cause for Hope,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, 1 Sep 2011, www.nola.com/environment/index.ssf/2011/09/new_land_in_eroding_louisiana.html.

124

Benoit Mandelbrot, The Fractal Geometry of Nature, updated ed. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1983). Although many other books (and movies!) have built on Mandelbrot’s work, this remains a classic explanation of a truly revolutionary new discipline. See esp. chapter 1, “Theme”; for a straightforward graphic that explains the concept of fractals, see the Koch snowflake illustrations on pp. 42–44.

125

J. W. Baish et al., “Fractal Characteristics of Tumor Vascular Architecture: Significance and Implications,” Microcirculation 4 (1997): 395–402.

126

These studies continue to find health benefits from strictly visual contact with fractal forms. See Hystad et al., “Residential Greenness and Birth Outcomes,” note 35 above.

127

For an overview of this research, see John P. Wiley Jr., “Help Is on the Way,” Smithsonian, Jul 1999, 22–24.

128

“Wild” is another difficult term. Most places on Earth are in some way influenced by human management, politics, pollution, or preservation. In this sense, no place is pristine. This fact is not, in my view, an excuse for failing to preserve those places that are closest to being wild, those that are most nearly self-sustaining. It is not the romance of being untouched that makes these places important, but rather what they show about the dynamics of biodiversity and how they preserve diversity lost elsewhere. Further discussion in Kim Sorvig, “Nature/Culture/Words/Landscapes,” Landscape Journal 21, no. 2 (2002): 1–14.

129

See www.ftc.gov/enforcement/rules/rulemaking-regulatory-reform-proceedings/green-guides. Green Guides are properly known as “Guides for the Use of Environmental Marketing Claims” (www.ftc.gov/policy/federal-register-notices/guides-use-environmental-marketing-claims-green-guides, 11 Oct 2012). The Guides do not mention landscapes, focusing on claims of nontoxicity or recycled content in products. Odds are the Trump administration will kill the Guides if they notice their existence.

130

George Hazelrigg, “Peeling Back the Surface,” LAM, Apr 2006, 112.

131

For details, see Michael Leccese, “No Shrinking Columbine,” LAM, Nov 2003, 84.

132

The exhibition catalog, by the same title, is available from Princeton Architectural Press.

133

Mary Beth Breckenridge, “Green and Gorgeous: Designers Help Environmentalism Go Up-scale,” Akron (OH) Beacon, 27 Nov 2005.

134

Meg Calkins, “Assignment: Eco-Friendly Campuses,” LAM, Jul 2002, 38.

135

Mary Padua, “Touching the Good Earth,” LAM, Jan 2006, 100.

136

André Viljoen, ed., Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities (London: Architectural Press, 2005).

137

Calkins, “Assignment,” 40.

138

Peggy Barlett and Geoffrey Chase, eds., Sustainability on Campus: Stories and Strategies for Change (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2004), p. 5. The book contains one chapter on a native-plant experiment; the other chapters range from integrating environmental lessons throughout the curriculum to organizing faculty and staff initiatives.

139

“A New Option for Afterlife,” EBN, Mar 1999.

140

Edvard Munch, Kunskabens Træ på godt og ondt, p. T 2547A41. This work is an unpublished scrapbook that Munch made himself; parts of it were published in Edvard Munch: Symbols and Images, an exhibition catalog from the National Gallery, Washington DC, 1978. Thanks to Gerd Woll and Tor Edvin Dahl, of Oslo, for tracking down this quotation’s real source.

141

Memorial Ecosystems, www.memorialecosystems.com/.

142

Although in theory land preservation could be accomplished while retaining conventional sealed-casket burials, the degree of land disturbance caused by this approach reduces the “fit” considerably. It would, however, reduce the pesticide and energy inputs currently required to maintain the barren monocultural landscapes found in most conventional cemeteries.

143

Information on greening the slopes comes from two sources: a syndicated article by the editors of E magazine, “Ski Resorts Try to Cut Damage They Do,” 10 Dec 2001, and the website of the National Ski Areas Association, www.nsaa.org/.

144

National Ski Areas Association, Sustainable Slopes Annual Report 2016, www.nsaa.org/media/276021/SSAR2016.pdf.

145

K. Sorvig, “Renewing Zion,” LAM, Nov 2001, 62.

146

Brian Skoloff, “Remodeling of Yosemite Pits Preservation Against Access,” Associated Press, 14 Dec 2003. The criticisms, from a group called Friends of Yosemite Valley, are disputed by (among others) the National Parks Conservation Association.

147

See http://caselaw.findlaw.com/hi-supreme-court/1440543.html. The case was dismissed on December 6, 2002, by the Hawaii Supreme Court, to the immense relief of tourism promotion boards everywhere. The court ruled that the Sierra Club lacked standing (legal right to sue) because the club itself had no concrete interest that would be damaged by the tourism advertising—only the environment would be damaged! This argument has repeatedly been abused to make it impossible to sue to defend public lands. The case was appealed back and forth, the legislature in special session wrote a law tailored to the desires of a specific tourist transport company, and a (probably) final decision was rendered in 2009.

148

L. A. G. Moss, ed., The Amenity Migrants: Seeking and Sustaining Mountains and Their Cultures (Cambridge MA: CABI, 2006), 5.

149

Among them the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. An overview report on the relationship between urban landscapes and obesity appeared in USA Today (Martha T. Moore, “Walk, Can’t Walk,” 23 Apr 2003).

150

See, for example, Nick Dephtereos, “Young Residents, New Businesses Flock to Old Neighborhoods,” EBN, Jul 2014, 12.

Titel: Basic Principles: “Sustainability” in Context
verfasst von: Kim Sorvig
J. William Thompson
Verlag: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics
Buch: Sustainable Landscape Construction
Print ISBN: 978-1-61091-925-8

Electronic ISBN: 978-1-61091-811-4

Copyright-Jahr: 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-811-4_1

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