Abstract
Temporal niche partitioning may be influenced not only by interspecific competition, but also by weather conditions. Decreased food availability and dietary overlap between species can increase the degree of interspecific competition during winter, thereby promoting temporal niche partitioning. However, multiple species can be simultaneously active under similar weather conditions (high temperature and little snowfall) in winter to reduce energy costs and increase temporal niche overlap. In this study, we aimed to determine the degree of temporal niche partitioning among red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), and Japanese martens (Martes melampus), and its variation with seasonal climate change in terms of interspecific competition and weather conditions. We obtained data on the target species through a camera-trap survey conducted in a heavy snowfall area in northeastern Japan. We analyzed the degree of temporal niche partitioning based on diel activity overlap, co-occurrence rates per night, and behavioral avoidance within 1 or 2 h. We also evaluated the relationship between the presence or absence of activity per night and nightly weather conditions (temperature, precipitation (snowfall), moonlight). We observed a high degree of temporal niche overlap among the three species. In particular, the degree of temporal niche overlap was higher in winter than that in other seasons because the activity of the three species was greatly affected by low temperatures and snowfall in winter. As a winter survival strategy, coping with the weather may be more important than avoiding competition. Our results conflict with the hypothesis predicting temporal niche partitioning in winter, suggesting that weather effects can be an important factor in varying temporal niche partitioning among carnivores.
Significance statement
This study revealed that the temporal niche overlap of three carnivores in northeastern Japan was higher in winter than that in other seasons because they were simultaneously active under similar weather conditions (high temperature and little snowfall) in winter to reduce energy costs. This indicates that coping with the weather may be more important than avoiding interspecific competition as a winter survival strategy. Our results conflict with the hypothesis predicting temporal niche partitioning among carnivores in winter due to restricted food resources and dietary overlap. This suggests that the different degrees of weather effects can be an important factor in varying temporal niche partitioning among carnivores. Because extreme changes in weather conditions such as extremely high temperatures, blizzards, and heavy rains, have occurred worldwide in recent years, weather conditions may significantly affect the niche partitioning among carnivores distributed in different environments worldwide.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the supplementary information.
References
Ables ED (1969) Activity studies of red foxes in southern Wisconsin. J Wildlife Manage 33:145–153
Adachi T, Uehara A, Kuwahara Y, Takatsuki S (2016) Seasonal food habits of the Japanese marten (Martes melampus melampus) at Otome Highland, central Japan. Mamm Sci 56:17–25 (in Japanese with English summary)
Balme G, Rogan M, Thomas L et al (2019) Big cats at large: density, structure, and spatio-temporal patterns of a leopard population free of anthropogenic mortality. Popul Ecol 61:256–267. https://doi.org/10.1002/1438-390X.1023
Baltrūnaitė L (2006) Diet and winter habitat use of the red fox, pine marten and raccoon dog in Dzūkija National Park, Lithuania. Acta Zool Litu 16:46–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/13921657.2006.10512709
Barrull J, Mate I, Ruiz-Olmo J, Casanovas JG, Gosàlbez J, Salicrú M (2014) Factors and mechanisms that explain coexistence in a Mediterranean carnivore assemblage: an integrated study based on camera trapping and diet. Mamm Biol 79:123–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2013.11.004
Bartoń KA, Zalewski A (2007) Winter severity limits red fox populations in Eurasia. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 16:281–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00299.x
Borcard D, Legendre P (2012) Is the Mantel correlogram powerful enough to be useful in ecological analysis? A simulation study. Ecology 93:1473–1481. https://doi.org/10.1890/11-1737.1
Botts RT, Eppert AA, Wiegman TJ et al (2020) Circadian activity patterns of mammalian predators and prey in Costa Rica. J Mammal 101:1313–1331. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyaa103
Bu H, Wang F, McShea WJ, Lu Z, Wang D, Li S (2016) Spatial co-occurrence and activity patterns of mesocarnivores in the temperate forests of southwest China. PLoS ONE 11:e0164271. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164271
Burton AC, Neilson E, Moreira D, Ladle A, Steenweg R, Fisher JT, Bayne E, Boutin S (2015) Wildlife camera trapping: a review and recommendations for linking surveys to ecological processes. J Appl Ecol 52:675–685. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12432
Carvalho JC, Gomes P (2004) Feeding resource partitioning among four sympatric carnivores in the Peneda-Gerês National Park (Portugal). J Zool 263:275–283. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0952836904005266
Biodiversity Center of Japan (2012) The 6–7th National Surveys on The Natural Environment, https://www.biodic.go.jp/kiso/fnd_list_h.html
Creel S, Creel NM, Creel AM, Creel BM (2016) Hunting on a hot day: effects of temperature on interactions between African wild dogs and their prey. Ecology 97:2910–2916. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1568
Cusack JJ, Dickman AJ, Kalyahe M, Rowcliffe JM, Carbone C, MacDonald DW, Coulson T (2017) Revealing kleptoparasitic and predatory tendencies in an African mammal community using camera traps: a comparison of spatiotemporal approaches. Oikos 126:812–822. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.03403
Davis CL, Rich LN, Farris ZJ et al (2018) Ecological correlates of the spatial co-occurrence of sympatric mammalian carnivores worldwide. Ecol Lett 21:1401–1412. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13124
Davis RS, Yarnell RW, Gentle LK et al (2021) Prey availability and intraguild competition regulate the spatiotemporal dynamics of a modified large carnivore guild. Ecol Evol 11:7890–7904. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.7620
Di Bitetti MS, Paviolo A, De Angelo C (2014) Camera trap photographic rates on roads vs. off roads: location does matter. Mastozool Neotrop 21:37–46
Dias DM, Massara RL, de Campos CB, Rodrigues FHG (2019) Feline predator–prey relationships in a semi-arid biome in Brazil. J Zool 307:282–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12647
Donadio E, Buskirk SW (2006) Diet, morphology, and interspecific killing in carnivora. Am Nat 167:524–536. https://doi.org/10.1086/501033
Doncaster CP, Macdonald DW (1997) Activity patterns and interactions of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Oxford city. J Zool 241:73–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05500.x
Durant SM (1998) Competition refuges and coexistence: an example from Serengeti carnivores. J Anim Ecol 67:370–386. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2656.1998.00202.x
Fedriani JM, Fuller TK, Sauvajot RM, York EC (2000) Competition and intraguild predation among three sympatric carnivores. Oecologia 125:258–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420000448
Frey S, Fisher JT, Burton AC, Volpe JP (2017) Investigating animal activity patterns and temporal niche partitioning using camera-trap data: challenges and opportunities. Remote Sens Ecol Conserv 3:123–132. https://doi.org/10.1002/rse2.60
Furukawa G (2019) genkiFurukawa/rSetDayNightAttr documentation, https://rdrr.io/github/genkiFurukawa/rSetDayNightAttr/
Gómez-Ortiz Y, Monroy-Vilchis O, Castro-Arellano I (2019) Temporal coexistence in a carnivore assemblage from central Mexico: temporal-domain dependence. Mammal Res 64:333–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-019-00415-8
Griffith DM, Veech JA, Marsh CJ (2016) Cooccur: probabilistic species co-occurrence analysis in R. J Stat Softw 69:1–17. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v069.c02
Hendrichsen DK, Tyler NJC (2014) How the timing of weather events influences early development in a large mammal. Ecology 95:1737–1745. https://doi.org/10.1890/13-1032.1
Herfindal I, Lande US, Solberg EJ, Rolandsen CM, Roer O, Wam HK (2017) Weather affects temporal niche partitioning between moose and livestock. Wildlife Biol 2017:wlb.00275. https://doi.org/10.2981/wlb.00275
Hirasawa M, Kanda E, Takatsuki S (2006) Seasonal food habits of the raccoon dog at a western suburb of Tokyo. Mamm Study 31:9–14. https://doi.org/10.3106/1348-6160(2006)31[9:sfhotr]2.0.co;2
Hisano M, Hoshino L, Kamada S, Masuda R, Newman C, Kaneko Y (2017) A comparison of visual and genetic techniques for identifying Japanese marten scats enabling diet examination in relation to seasonal food availability in a sub-alpine area of Japan. Zool Sci 34:137–146
Hisano M, Ca M, Willcox D (2020) Toward a better understanding of the Japanese marten Martes melampus diet. Small Carniv Conserv 58:e58009
Hofmeester TR, Rowcliffe JM, Jansen PA (2017) A simple method for estimating the effective detection distance of camera traps. Remote Sens Ecol Conserv 3:81–89. https://doi.org/10.1002/rse2.25
Ikeda T, Uchida K, Matsuura Y, Takahashi H, Yoshida T, Kaji K, Koizumi I (2016) Seasonal and diel activity patterns of eight sympatric mammals in northern Japan revealed by an intensive camera-trap survey. PLoS ONE 11:e0163602. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163602
Japan Meteorological Agency (2021) Japan Meteorological Agency. Yearly climate data in Tsuruoka, https://www.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/risk/obsdl/index.php
Kamler JF, Ballard WB, Gilliland RL, Mote K (2003) Spatial relationships between swift foxes and coyotes in northwestern Texas. Can J Zool 81:168–172. https://doi.org/10.1139/z02-222
Kamler JF, Stenkewitz U, Klare U, Jacobsen NF, Macdonald DW (2012) Resource partitioning among cape foxes, bat-eared foxes, and black-backed jackals in South Africa. J Wildlife Manage 76:1241–1253. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.354
Karanth KU, Srivathsa A, Vasudev D, Puri M, Parameshwaran R, Kumar NS (2017) Spatio-temporal interactions facilitate large carnivore sympatry across a resource gradient. Proc R Soc B 284:20161860. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.1860
Kauhala K, Holmala K, Schregel J (2007) Seasonal activity patterns and movements of the raccoon dog, a vector of diseases and parasites, in southern Finland. Mamm Biol 72:342–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2006.10.006
Kitao N, Fukui D, Hashimoto M, Osborne PG (2009) Overwintering strategy of wild free-ranging and enclosure-housed Japanese raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides albus). Int J Biometeorol 53:159–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-008-0199-7
Korslund L, Steen H (2006) Small rodent winter survival: snow conditions limit access to food resources. J Anim Ecol 75:156–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2005.01031.x
Kronfeld-Schor N, Dayan T (2003) Partitioning of time as an ecological resource. Annu Rev Ecol Evol S 34:153–181. https://doi.org/10.1146/132435
Leonard JP, Tewes ME, Lombardi JV, Wester DW, Campbell TA (2020) Effects of sun angle, lunar illumination, and diurnal temperature on temporal movement rates of sympatric ocelots and bobcats in South Texas. PLoS ONE 15:e0231732. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231732
Li J, Xue Y, Liao M, Dong W, Wu B, Li D (2022) Temporal and spatial activity patterns of sympatric wild ungulates in Qinling Mountains. China Animals 12:1666. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12131666
Lindstrom ER, Brainerd SM, Helldin JO, Overskaug K (1995) Pine marten-red fox interactions: a case of intraguild predation? Ann Zool Fenn 32:123–130
Linnell JDC, Strand O (2000) Interference interactions, co-existence and conservation of mammalian carnivores. Divers Distrib 6:169–176. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1472-4642.2000.00069.x
Magnusson A, Skaug H, Nielsen A, et al (2021) Generalized linear mixed models using template model builder, https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/glmmTMB/index.html
Marinho PH, Fonseca CR, Sarmento P, Fonseca C, Venticinque EM (2020) Temporal niche overlap among mesocarnivores in a Caatinga dry forest. Eur J Wildlife Res 66:34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-020-1371-6
Meredith M, Ridout M (2021) Overlap: estimates of coefficient of overlapping for animal activity patterns, https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/overlap/index.html
Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport (2021) The act of special countermeasures for heavy snowfall area, https://www.mlit.go.jp/kokudoseisaku/chisei/crd_chisei_tk_000010.html
Misawa E (1979) Change in the food habits of the red fox, Vulpes vulpes schrencki Kishida according to habitat conditions. J Mammal Soc Japan 7:311–320 (in Japanese)
Monterroso P, Alves PC, Ferreras P (2014) Plasticity in circadian activity patterns of mesocarnivores in southwestern Europe: implications for species coexistence. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 68:1403–1417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-014-1748-1
Monterroso P, Rebelo P, Alves PC, Ferreras P (2016) Niche partitioning at the edge of the range: a multidimensional analysis with sympatric martens. J Mammal 97:928–939. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyw016
Murdoch JD, Munkhzul T, Buyandelger S, Reading RP, Sillero-Zubiri C (2010) Seasonal food habits of corsac and red foxes in Mongolia and the potential for competition. Mamm Biol 75:36–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2008.12.003
Mustonen AM, Nieminen P (2018) A review of the physiology of a survival expert of big freeze, deep snow, and an empty stomach: the boreal raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides). J Comp Physiol B 188:15–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00360-017-1114-5
National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (2021) Ephemeris computation office NAOJ, https://eco.mtk.nao.ac.jp/koyomi/index.html
O’Brien TG, Kinnaird MF, Wibisono HT (2003) Crouching tigers, hidden prey: Sumatran tiger and prey populations in a tropical forest landscape. Anim Conserv 6:131–139. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1367943003003172
Ogurtsov SS, Zheltukhin AS, Kotlov IP (2018) Daily activity patterns of large and medium-sized mammals based on camera traps data in the Central Forest Nature Reserve, Valdai Upland, Russia. Nat Conserv Res 3:68–88. https://doi.org/10.24189/ncr.2018.031
Ohdachi SD, Ishibashi Y, Iwasa MA, Fukuki D, Saitoh T (2015) The wild mammals of Japan, 2nd edn. Shokadoh Book Seller, Kyoto
Otsu S (1972) Winter food of Japanese yellow marten, Martes melumpus melumpus (Temminck et Schelegel), in Yamagata Prefecture. Japn J Appl Entomol Zool 16:75–78 (in Japanese with English summary)
Padial JM, Âvila E, Sánchez JM (2002) Feeding habits and overlap among red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and stone marten (Martes foina) in two Mediterranean mountain habitats. Mamm Biol 67:137–146. https://doi.org/10.1078/1616-5047-00021
Palomares F, Caro TM (1999) Interspecific killing among mammalian carnivores. Am Nat 153:492–508. https://doi.org/10.1086/303189
Panzeri M, Mazza G, Bisi F, Mori E (2021) Patterns of spatiotemporal activity of an alien lagomorph inferred through camera-trapping. Mammal Res 66:281–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-021-00557-8
Parsons MA, Bridges AS, Biteman DS, Garcelon DK (2020) Precipitation and prey abundance influence food habits of an invasive carnivore. Anim Conserv 23:60–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12510
Penteriani V, Kuparinen A, del Mar DM et al (2013) Responses of a top and a meso predator and their prey to moon phases. Oecologia 173:753–766. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-013-2651-6
Petersen WJ, Savini T, Steinmetz R, Ngoprasert D (2019) Periodic resource scarcity and potential for interspecific competition influences distribution of small carnivores in a seasonally dry tropical forest fragment. Mamm Biol 95:112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2018.11.001
Pianka ER (1973) The structure of lizard communities. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 4:53–74. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000413
Pozzanghera CB, Sivy KJ, Lindberg MS, Prugh LR (2016) Variable effects of snow conditions across boreal mesocarnivore species. Can J Zool 94:697–705. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2016-0050
Prugh LR, Golden CD (2014) Does moonlight increase predation risk? Meta-analysis reveals divergent responses of nocturnal mammals to lunar cycles. J Anim Ecol 83:504–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12148
R Core Team (2021) R: a language environment for statistical computing. R foundation for statistical computing, Vienna, Austria, https://www.r-project.org/
Ridout MS, Linkie M (2009) Estimating overlap of daily activity patterns from camera trap data. J Agric Biol Environ Stat 14:322–337. https://doi.org/10.1198/jabes.2009.08038
Ripple WJ, Estes JA, Beschta RL et al (2014) Status and ecological effects of the world’s largest carnivores. Science 343:1241484. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241484
Roemer GW, Gompper ME, Van Valkenburgh B (2009) The ecological role of the mammalian mesocarnivore. Bioscience 59:165–173. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2009.59.2.9
Rossa M, Lovari S, Ferretti F (2021) Spatiotemporal patterns of wolf, mesocarnivores and prey in a Mediterranean area. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 75:32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-020-02956-4
Saeki M, Johnson PJ, Macdonald DW (2007) Movements and habitat selection of raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in a mosaic landscape. J Mammal 88:1098–1111. https://doi.org/10.1644/06-mamm-a-208r1.1
Seki Y, Koganezawa M (2011) Factors influencing winter home ranges and activity patterns of raccoon dogs Nyctereutes procyonoides in a high-altitude area of Japan. Acta Theriol 56:171–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-010-0020-y
Takeuchi M, Koganezawa M (1992) Home range and habitat utilisation of the red fox Vulpes vulpes in the Ashio Mountains, Central Japan. J Mammal Soc Japan 17:95–110. https://doi.org/10.11238/jmammsocjapan.17.95
Torretta E, Serafini M, Puopolo F, Schenone L (2016) Spatial and temporal adjustments allowing the coexistence among carnivores in Liguria (N-W Italy). Acta Ethol 19:123–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10211-015-0231-y
Tsukada H, Nonaka N (1996) Foraging behavior of red foxes Vulpes vulpes schrencki utilizing human food in the Shiretoko National Park, Hokkaido. Mamm Study 21:137–151
Tsunoda H, Newman C, Peeva S, Raichev E, Buesching CD, Kaneko Y (2020) Spatio-temporal partitioning facilitates mesocarnivore sympatry in the Stara Planina Mountains. Bulgaria Zoology 141:125801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zool.2020.125801
Vilella M, Ferrandiz-Rovira M, Sayol F (2020) Coexistence of predators in time: effects of season and prey availability on species activity within a Mediterranean carnivore guild. Ecol Evol 10:11408–11422. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6778
Viviano A, Mori E, Fattorini N, Mazza G, Lazzeri L, Panichi A, Strianese L, Mohamed WF (2021) Spatiotemporal overlap between the European brown hare and its potential predators and competitors. Animals 11:562. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020562
Waggershauser CN, Ruffino L, Kortland K, Lambin X (2021) Lethal interactions among forest-grouse predators are numerous, motivated by hunger and carcasses, and their impacts determined by the demographic value of the victims. Ecol Evol 11:7164–7186. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.7574
Watabe R, Saito MU (2021a) Diel activity patterns of three sympatric medium-sized carnivores during winter and spring in a heavy snowfall area in northeastern Japan. Mamm Study 46:69–75. https://doi.org/10.3106/ms2020-0039
Watabe R, Saito MU (2021b) Effects of vehicle-passing frequency on forest roads on the activity patterns of carnivores. Landsc Ecol Eng 17:225–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-020-00434-7
Watabe R, Saito MU (2022) Diel activity pattern of a nonindigenous species, the masked palm civet in the Shonai region, Yamagata Prefecture, Japan. Tohoku J for Sci 27:11–17 (in Japanese)
Watabe R, Saito MU, Enari HS, Enari H (2020) Mammalian fauna of the Kaminagawa experimental forest of Yamagata University detected by camera traps. Tohoku J for Sci 25:37–40 (in Japanese)
Watabe R, Tsunoda H, Saito MU (2022) Evaluating the temporal and spatio-temporal niche partitioning between carnivores by different analytical method in northeastern Japan. Sci Rep 12:11987
Willebrand T, Willebrand S, Jahren T, Marcström V (2017) Snow tracking reveals different foraging patterns of red foxes and pine martens. Mammal Res 62:331–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13364-017-0332-2
World Meteorological Organization (2020) WMO provisional report on the state of the global climate 2020, https://reliefweb.int/report/world/wmo-provisional-report-state-global-climate-2020
Yamamoto Y (1994) Comparative analyses on food habits of Japanese marten, red fox, badger and raccoon dog in the Mt. Nyugasa, Nagano Prefecture. Japan Nat Environ Sci Res 7:45–52 (in Japanese with English summary)
Zalewska K, Waggershauser CN, Kortland K, Lambin X (2021) The best defence is not being there: avoidance of larger carnivores is not driven by risk intensity. J Zool 315:110–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12910
Zalewski A (2000) Factors affecting the duration of activity by pine martens (Martes martes) in the Białowieża National Park, Poland. J Zool 251:439–447. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0952836900008037
Zalewski A (2001) Seasonal and sexual variation in diel activity rhythms of pine marten Martes martes in the Białowieża National Park (Poland). Acta Theriol 46:295–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03192436
Zhou YB, Newman C, Xu WT, Buesching CD, Zalewski A, Kaneko Y, Macdonald DW, Xie ZQ (2011) Biogeographical variation in the diet of holarctic martens (genus Martes, Mammalia: Carnivora: Mustelidae): adaptive foraging in generalists. J Biogeogr 38:137–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02396.x
Zoller H, Drygala F (2013) Activity patterns of the invasive raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in North East Germany. Folia Zool 62:290–296
Acknowledgements
We thank the associates of the Yamagata University and the staff of Experimental Forest of the Yamagata University for supporting our field survey, and f the people in Kaminagawa and Nishiaraya communities in Tsuruoka City for permitting our field survey. We also thank Dr. H. Enari for providing helpful comments on this study and Dr. H. Tsunoda for providing helpful comments on data analysis and literature for this study. We are grateful to anonymous reviewers for improving an earlier draft of our manuscript.
Funding
This work was partly supported by YU-COE (M) grant from Yamagata University to MUS.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
RW and MUS conceived and designed the study, RW conducted the data collection and statistical analyses, and RW and MUS wrote the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
The procedures of this study were in accordance with the national laws of Japan. Ethical approval from ethics committee for involving animals was not required.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Communicated by B. Voelkl
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Watabe, R., Saito, M.U. Winter weather conditions result in temporal niche overlap among three sympatric medium-sized carnivores in northeastern Japan. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 76, 164 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-022-03271-w
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-022-03271-w