Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Repetitive Thought and Emotional Distress: Rumination and Worry as Prospective Predictors of Depressive and Anxious Symptomatology

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

An Erratum to this article was published on 17 March 2012

Abstract

Repetitive thought processes have been implicated in vulnerability to both anxiety and depression. The present study used a prospective design to examine the ability of worry and rumination to predict these two forms of emotional distress over time. Participants were 451 college students (273 females) who completed self-report measures of rumination, worry, depression, and anxiety at two time points separated by 6–8 weeks. Results indicated that both worry and rumination prospectively predicted anxiety, whereas neither thought process prospectively predicted depressive symptomatology. Although females reported elevated levels of worry and rumination compared to males, gender did not moderate any of these effects. Based on these findings, it appears that repetitive thought in the form of both worry and rumination contributes to anxiety, whereas neither thought process contributed to the development of depressive symptomatology in the present sample. Post-hoc analyses raise the possibility that previously documented associations between rumination and depression may have been partially driven by criterion contamination between measures of these constructs (see J. E. Roberts, E. Gilboa, & I. H. Gotlib, 1998).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Given the large number of individuals who did not return for the T2 follow-up session (n=92), we chose to conduct the final analyses with and without these individuals. Results with and without these individuals were virtually identical and we therefore decided to exclude individuals who did not return for the T2 follow-up session from the final analyses in an attempt to be conservative.

References

  • Andrews, V. H., & Borkovec, T. D. (1988). The differential effects of inductions of worry, somatic anxiety, and depression on emotional experience. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 19(1), 21–26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (2004). AMOS for Windows. Analysis of moment structures: Version 5.0. Chicago: Small Waters Corp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893–897.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blagden, J. C., & Craske, M. G. (1996). Effects of active and passive rumination and distraction: A pilot replication with anxious mood. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10, 243–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T., Ray, W. J., & Stober, J. (1998). Worry: A cognitive phenomenon intimately linked to affective, physiological, and interpersonal behavioral processes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22(6), 561–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T., Robinson, E., Pruzinsky, T., & DePree, J. (1983). Preliminary exploration of worry: Some characteristics and processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21, 9–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahway, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, L. D., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). Gender differences in responses to depressed mood in a college sample. Sex Roles, 30(5–6), 331–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chelminski, I., & Zimmerman, M. (2003). Pathological worry in depressed and anxious patients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17(5), 533–546.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ciesla, J. A., & Roberts, J. E. (2002). Self-directed thought and response to treatment for depression: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 16(4), 435–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ciesla, J. A., & Roberts, J. E. (2006). Rumination, negative cognition, and their interactive effects on depressed mood. Manuscript in preparation.

  • Conway, M., Csank, P. A. R., Holm, S. L., & Blake, C. K. (2000). On individual differences in rumination on sadness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 75(3), 404–425.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Taylor, S. (2001). The effect of rumination as a mediator of elevated anxiety sensitivity in major depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25(5), 525–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davey, G. C. L., Hampton, J., Farrell, J., & Davidson, S. (1992). Some characteristics of worrying: Evidence for worrying and anxiety states as separate constructs. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 133–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finlay-Jones, R., & Brown, G. W. (1981). Types of stressful life event and the onset of anxiety and depressive disorders. Psychological Medicine, 11, 803–815

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fresco, D. M., Frankel, A. N., Mennin, D. S., Turk, C. L., & Heimberg, R. G. (2002). Distinct and overlapping features of rumination and worry: The relationship of cognitive production in negative affective states. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26(2), 179–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gana, K., Martin, B., & Canouet, M. D. (2001). Worry and anxiety: Is there a causal relationship? Psychopathology, 34(5), 221–229.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gotlib, I. H. (1984). Depression and general psychopathology in university students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93(1), 19–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoehn-Saric, R., McLeod, D. R., & Zimmerli, W. D. (1989). Somatic manifestations in women with generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1113–1119.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoyer, J., Becker, E. S., & Roth, W. T. (2001). Characteristics of worry in GAD patients, social phobics and controls. Depression and Anxiety, 13(2), 89–96.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Just, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 221–229.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., Caldwell, N. D., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). Effects of ruminative and distracting responses to depressed mood on retrieval of autobiographical memories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 166–177.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 487–495.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morrow, J., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1990). Effects of responses to depression on the remediation of depressive affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 519–527.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Roelofs, J., Meesters, C., & Boomsma, P. (2004). Rumination and worry in nonclinical adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(4), 539–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolan, S. A., Roberts, J. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1998). Neuroticism and ruminative response style as predictors of change in depressive symptomatology. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 445–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of the depressive episode. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569–582.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 504–511.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., McBride, A., & Larson, J. (1997). Rumination and psychological distress among bereaved partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 855–862.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(1), 115–121.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1993). The effects of rumination and distraction on naturally-occurring depressed moods. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 561–570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(1), 20–28.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Parker, L., & Larson, J. (1994). Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 92–104.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pigott, T. A. (1999). Gender differences in the epidemiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(Suppl 18), 4–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prisciandaro, J., & Roberts, J. E. (2005). A taxometric investigation of unipolar depression in the National Comorbidity Survey. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114(4), 718–728.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quintana, S. M., & Maxwell, S. E. (1999). Implications of recent developments in structural equation modeling for counseling psychology. Counseling Psychologist, 27(4), 485–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. E., Gilboa, E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1998). Ruminative response style and vulnerability to episodes of dysphoria: Gender, neuroticism, and episode duration. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22(4), 401–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruscio, J., & Ruscio, A. M. (2002). The latent structure of analogue depression: Should the Beck Depression Inventory be used to classify groups? Psychological Assessment, 14(2), 135–145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruscio, A. M., Ruscio, J., & Keane, T. M. (2002). The latent structure of post-traumatic stress disorder: A taxometric investigation of reactions to extreme stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 290–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruscio, A. M., Borkovec, T. D., & Ruscio, J. P. (2001). A taxometric investigation of the latent structure of worry. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 413–422.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Segerstrom, S. C., Tsao, J. C. I., Alden, L. E., & Craske, M. G. (2000). Worry and rumination: Repetitive thought as a concomitant and predictor of negative mood. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 671–688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spasojevic, J., & Alloy, L. B. (2001). Rumination as a common mechanism relating depressive risk factors to depression. Emotion, 1, 25–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sprinkle, S. D., Lurie, D., Insko, S. L., Atkinson, G., Jones, G. L., Logan, A. R., et al. (2002). Criterion validity, severity cut scores, and test-retest reliability of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in a university counseling center sample. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(3), 381–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Starcevic, V. (1995). Pathological worry in major depression: A preliminary report. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 55–56.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thayer, J. F., Friedman, B. H., & Borkovec, T. D. (1996). Autonomic characteristics of generalized anxiety disorder and worry. Biological Psychiatry, 39, 255–266.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trask, P. C., & Sigmon, S. T. (1999). Ruminating and distracting: The effects of sequential tasks on depressed mood. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 23, 231–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 247–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, E., & Teasdale, J. D. (2001). Rumination and overgeneral memory in depression: Effects of self-focus and analytic thinking. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110(2), 333–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zebb, B. J., & Beck, J. G. (1998). Worry versus anxiety: Is there really a difference? Behavior Modification, 22, 45–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA

    Christine A. Calmes & John E. Roberts

Authors
  1. Christine A. Calmes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John E. Roberts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John E. Roberts.

Additional information

An erratum to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10608-012-9447-6

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Calmes, C.A., Roberts, J.E. Repetitive Thought and Emotional Distress: Rumination and Worry as Prospective Predictors of Depressive and Anxious Symptomatology. Cogn Ther Res 31, 343–356 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-006-9026-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-006-9026-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation