The paper differentiates between three conceptualizations of organizational networks: as resources, as organizational logic, and as a change mechanism. We integrate and apply these conceptualizations in one of the first comprehensive studies of private business schools in post-socialism. Using case studies, content analysis of websites, and an open-ended survey of administrators, we show how East-West networks helped in establishing a new type of organization at the end of socialism, how schools use networking as a core organizational principle to enhance efficacy and legitimacy, and how their activities help build capitalism from the bottom up by transmitting market-based knowledge to post-socialist economic actors.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
There is also a lot of literature on the importance of networks for organizations other than business firms, such as social movement organizations (e.g., Soule, 1997; Van Dyke, 2003, for review, see Diani and McAdam, 2003) and community and voluntary associations (e.g., McPherson et al., 1992; Rotolo, 1999; Cornwell and Harrison, 2004).
Some previous studies apply a culturalist perspective to networks. For instance, Nicole Biggart (1988) in her research on direct-selling organizations (DSOs) shows how, for such organizations, networking is the way to do business and represents a core organizational principle. Examining cultural change in organizations, Smith-Doerr (2005) shows how life scientists legitimate work in the biotechnology industry and thus help institutionalize the network form of organization prevalent in the knowledge economy.
Examples of this literature include (Lipton and Sachs, 1990; Blanchard et al., 1991; Przeworski, 1991; Staniszkis, 1991; Koslowski, 1992; Stark, 1996; Amsden et al., 1994; Hausner et al., 1995; Campbell and Pedersen, 1996; Stark and Bruszt, 1998; Eyal et al., 1998; Orenstein, 2001; Bandelj, 2002; Hanley et al., 2002; Ekiert and Hanson, 2003; Walder, 2003).
For simplicity, we use the general term socialism to denote political systems ruled by the Communist Party, set in place after World War II in Central and Eastern Europe. In reality, there were some differences in the types of socialism that were implemented in individual Central and East European countries, in particular self-management in former Yugoslavia in contrast to state socialism in the countries under direct Soviet influence.
Slovenia was the northernmost republic of the Federal Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia until 1991, when Yugoslavia split up, and Slovenia became an independent, sovereign state.
During her studies, Purg traveled extensively abroad, and her doctoral dissertation was a comparison of self-management practices in the Netherlands and Yugoslavia. This influenced her vision of what a management-education center should offer and led her to insist that it should be an international institution.
Personal interview, April 24, 2004.
At that time, several studies conducted in the United States recommended improvements to the international business education offered to the U.S. college graduates (Sharma and Roy, 1996).
The Central European University was established in 1991 with funding and support largely provided by George Soros, a philanthropist of Hungarian ancestry, who was one of the key founders of the IMC.
In a socialist system, the economic elite was closely coupled with the political elite because of Communist Party membership.
The Phare program is one of three pre-accession instruments financed by the European Union to assist the applicant countries of Central and Eastern Europe in their preparations for joining the European Union (EU 2006a). For an instance of how Phare funds were used to establish management programs, see the history of the Graduate School of Business Economics, Higher School of International Commerce and Finance, Warsaw, Poland (GSBE-HSICF 2006). Moreover, the European Union also supports cross-organizational cooperation among educational institutions in a program called ERASMUS, which facilitates student and teacher exchanges, joint programs, and other kinds of networks between schools (EU 2006b). Currently, 31 countries are members, including Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Thus, networking activities between business schools in Central and Eastern Europe are encouraged also by a transnational institutional framework.
Many schools apply for funding from international agencies, but they rely on tuition and fees as their primary sources of income. Often (especially for executive education) these fees are paid by corporations that send their managers for further training. Increasingly, students now take out loans to finance their own education.
For other studies on the creation of new organizational fields see for instance, DiMaggio's (1991) study of the rise of professionalization of the U.S. art museums, Haveman and Rao's (1997) study of the development of the thrift industry or Rao's (1998) study of the construction of nonprofit consumer watchdog organizations.
As stated on its website, “CEEMAN … is an international management development association established in 1993 with the aim of accelerating and improving management development in Central and Eastern Europe” (CEEMAN, 2005). CEEMAN activities include organization of the IMTA (International Management Teachers Academy), annual conferences and deans and directors meetings, and case-writing seminars and competitions. CEEMAN also has its own International Quality Accreditation system.
These countries include Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine.
In general, because the phenomenon is relatively new, comprehensive information about private business schools in Central and Eastern Europe is hard to come by. Currently, no reliable estimates exist of how many schools there are in the region, how many degrees they confer, and what kinds of organizational structures and resources they have.
We used the search words “business school,” “management school,” and country name.
While we looked through all the sources known to us to identify schools, we recognize that our sample is limited to those schools that have an established website. Because Internet communications are by now common in all of these countries, and it is quite unlikely that a school would not have a website (since their peers/competitors all have them), we believe the chance that our sample is biased is very small.
For instance, we decided to rely on published information about the schools rather than interviews with administrators, since in interviews it would have been difficult to distinguish between an organizational perspective (conveyed by an individual speaking on behalf of an organization) and the interviewee's own interpretation of that perspective.
In 2002, CEEMAN sent an open-ended questionnaire about patterns of collaboration via e-mail to all its members. Among those were 44 that met our definitional criteria for a private, post-socialist business school, and 32 administrators replied: Belarus (1), Croatia (1), the Czech Republic (1), Estonia (1), Georgia (2), Hungary (2), Latvia (4), Lithuania (2), Poland (4), Romania (4), Russia (7), Slovenia (2), and Ukraine (1). The questionnaire asked representatives of the school (usually dean's assistants) to list and describe the most important cooperative relationships cooperations that their schools were currently engaged in with (1) national or international governmental agencies; (2) with domestic or international NGOs; (3) with the research or educational programs of other schools, such as joint degrees; or (4) any other type of institutional cooperation. For each of the cooperations that the schools listed, they were asked to provide a brief description, names of institutions or individuals involved, start year, expected duration, how initial contacts were established, reasons for entering the cooperation, what benefits they gained from it, and what some of its disadvantages might be. Since the survey asked the administrators only about specific cooperations and not about the role that networking played in the school's overall spectrum of activities, we used these data merely to supplement our website content analysis with some direct quotations from administrators.
Some of the schools do not list their faculties on the website, or mention their composition, so in actuality the number of those that have faculty from abroad is probably even higher.
They refer here to the CEEMAN Membership Directory that lists all CEEMAN members. To become a member, one needs to fill out a membership form and attach the most recent brochure of the organization. The applicant also must be “devoted to teaching and research in management” and must have “available the required human, physical and financial resources for the achievement of its objectives [and] high academic standards of excellence” (CEEMAN, 2006b). The “academic standards of excellence” are judged by the expressed commitment of the institution to these standards rather than by an evaluation/ranking by an external agency.
Drawbacks listed were that “it is time consuming,” “can result in financial loss,” and that there may be “problems because of cultural differences.”
While we certainly found evidence in our data that schools try to function as change agents to facilitate broad transformations, further research is needed to specify in more detail the micro-macro link between learning market-based behaviors in educational institutions, such as business schools, and consequent macro-level changes in post-socialist economies.
REFERENCES
AACSB International 2005 “About us.” Online at http://www.aacsb.edu/aboutus.asp. Retrieved March 21, 2005.
Aldrich, Howard 2005 “Entrepreneurship.” In Neil Smelser and Richard Swedberg (eds.), The Handbook of Economic Sociology: 451–477. 2nd edn. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Aldrich, Howard, and Roger Waldinger 1990 “Ethnicity and entrepreneurship.” Annual Review of Sociology 16:111–135.
Aldrich, Howard, and Marlene C. Fiol 1994 “Fools rush in? The institutional context of industry creation.” Academy of Management Review 19:645–670.
Amsden, Alice, Jacek Kochanowicz, and Lance Taylor 1994 The Market Meets Its Match. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bandelj, Nina 2002 “Embedded economies: Social relations as determinants of foreign direct investment in Central and Eastern Europe.” Social Forces 81(2):411–444.
Barber, Bernard 1995 “All economies are embedded: The career of a concept and beyond.” Social Research 62(2):388–413.
BAS 2006 “Welcome to BAS.” Retrieved March 9, 2006 (http://www.wsaib.pl/welcome_to_bas.html).
Baum, Joel, and Christine Oliver 1992 “Institutional embeddedness and the dynamics of organizational populations.” American Sociological Review 57:540–559.
Biggart, Nicole Woolsey 1988 Charismatic Capitalism: Direct Selling Organizations in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Birnbaum, Robert 1988 How Colleges Work: The Cybernetics of Academic Organization and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Blanchard, Olivier, Rudiger Dornbusch, Paul Krugman, Richard Layard, and Lawrence Summers 1991 Reform in Eastern Europe. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Burt, Ronald 1983 Corporate Profits and Cooptation. New York: Academic Press.
1992 Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Čakrt, Michal 1993 “Management education in Eastern Europe: Toward mutual understanding.” The Academy of Management Executive 7(4):63–69.
Campbell, John L., and Ove K. Pedersen 1996 Legacies of Change: Transformations of Postcommunist European Economies. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
CEEMAN 2005 “About CEEMAN.” Online at http://www.ceeman.org/about/index.html. Retrieved January 23, 2005.
2006a “Current members.” Online at http://www.ceeman.org/About/current.html. Retrieved January 5, 2006.
2006b “Membership.” Online at http://www.ceeman.org/About/member.htm. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
CEU Graduate School of Business 2006a “CEU Business School mission.” Online at http://www.ceubusiness.com/mission.php?cmssessid=T21f461595217828107fb0619f63006685d888bdfc8f670e4b266d681040250b. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
2006b “History of CEU Business School.” Online at http://www.gsb.ceu.hu/page.php?page=26&l=1. Retrieved January 23, 2006.
Cohen, Michael D., and James March 1974 Leadership and Ambiguity: The American College President. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Cohen, Michael. D., James G. March, and Johan Olsen 1972 “A garbage can theory of organizational choice.” Administrative Science Quarterly 17:1–25.
Cornwell, Benjamin, and Jill Ann Harrison 2004 “Union members and voluntary associations: Membership overlap as a case of organizational embeddedness.” American Sociological Review 69(6):862–881.
Diani, Mario, and Doug McAdam 2003 Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
DiMaggio, Paul 1991 “Constructing an organizational field as a professional project: U.S. art museums: 1920–1940.” In Walter Powell and Paul DiMaggio (eds.), The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis: 267–292. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2001 The Twenty-First-Century Firm: Changing Economic Organization in International Perspective. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
DiMaggio, Paul, and Hugh Louch 1998 “Socially embedded consumer transactions: For what kinds of purchases do people most often use networks?” American Sociological Review 63:619–637.
DiMaggio, Paul, and Walter Powell 1983 “The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields.” American Sociological Review 48:147–160.
Dore, Ronald 1983 “Goodwill and the spirit of market capitalism.” British Journal of Sociology 34:459–482.
Doz, Yves 1996 “The evolution of cooperation in strategic alliances: Initial conditions or learning processes?” Strategic Management Journal 17:55–83.
Drew, Stephen 1994 “Executive development observations: Prague 1993.” Journal of Mana-gement Development 13(3):4–15.
Ekiert, Grzegorz, and Stephen Hanson 2003 Capitalism and Democracy in Central and Eastern Europe: Assessing the Legacy of Communist Rule. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Elbert, Norbert 1996 “Management education in post-socialist Hungary: Observations on obstacles to reforms.” Journal of Management Education 20(1):70–79.
EMBA 2005 “What we do?” Online at http://www.emba.org/about_whatwedo.htm. Retrieved March 23, 2005.
Emirbayer, Mustafa, and Jeff Goodwin 1994 “Network analysis, culture, and the problem of agency.” American Journal of Sociology 99(6):1411–1454.
ESM 2006 “Principal's welcome.” Online at http://www.esm-tbilisi.ge/english/aboutusglb.htm. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
EU 2006a “Phare.” Online at http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/pas/phare/. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
2006b “Socrates – Erasmus.” Online at http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/programmes/socrates/erasmus/erasmus_en.html. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
Eyal, Gil, Ivan Szelenyi, and Eleanor Townsley 1998 Making Capitalism Without Capitalists. New York: Verso.
Fligstein, Neil 1990 The Transformation of Corporate Control. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2001 The Architecture of Markets. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Fogel, Daniel 1990 “Management education in Central and Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.” Journal of Management Development 9(3):14–20.
Galaskiewicz, Joseph, Stanley Wasserman, Barbara Rauschenbach, Wolfgang Bielefeld, and Patti Mullaney 1985 “The influence of corporate power, social status, and market position on corporate interlocks in a regional market.” Social Forces 64:403–431.
Gerber, Theodore P. 2002 “Structural change and post-socialist stratification: Labor market transitions in contemporary Russia.” American Sociological Review 67:629–659.
Gerber, Theodore P., and Michael Hout 1998 “More shock than therapy: Market transition, employment, and income in Russia, 1991–1995.” American Journal of Sociology 104(1):1–50.
Giddens, Anthony 1984 The Constitution of Society. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Grabher, Genot, and David Stark 1997 “Organizing diversity: Evolutionary theory, network analysis and the post-socialist transformations.” Regional Studies 31(5):533–544.
Granovetter, Mark 1985 “Economic action and social structure: The problem of embeddedness.” American Journal of Sociology 91:481–510.
GSBE-HSICF 2006 “History.” Online at http://www.wshifm.edu.pl/history.php. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
Gulati, Ranjan 1995 “Social structure and alliance formation patterns: A longitudinal analysis.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40:619–652.
Gulati, Ranjay, and Martin Gargiulo 1999 “Where do interorganizational networks come from?” American Journal of Sociology 104(5):1439–1493.
Guseva, Alya, and Akos Rona-Tas 2001 “Uncertainty, risk and trust: Russian and American credit card markets compared.” American Sociological Review 66(5):623–646.
Hamel, Gary 1991 “Competition for competence and inter-partner learning within international strategic alliances.” Strategic Management Journal 12:83–103.
Hanley, Eric, Lawrence King, and Janos Istvan Toth 2002 “The state, international agencies, and property transformation in postcommunist Hungary.” American Journal of Sociology 108(1):129–161.
Hausner, Jerzy, Bob Jessop, and Klaus Nielsen 1995 Strategic Choice and Path-Dependency in Post-Socialism: Institutional Dynamics in the Transformation Process. London: Edward Elgar.
Haveman, Heather, and Hayagreeva Rao 1997 “Structuring a theory of moral sentiments: Institutional and organizational coevolution in the early thrift industry.” American Journal of Sociology 102:1606–1651.
IAB 2006 “Main page.” Online at http://www.iab.kz/eng/. Retrieved March 6, 2006.
IIB 2006 “About International Institute of Business.” Online at http://www.iib.com.ua/default.asp?cid=299&lang=en. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
Ingram, Paul, and Peter Roberts 2000 “Friendships among competitors in the Sydney hotel industry.” American Journal of Sociology 106:387–423.
Inkpen, A. C. 1996 “Creating knowledge through collaboration.” California Management Review 39:123–140.
IPFM 2006 “Welcome to IPFM.” Online at http://www.ipfm.cz/?doc=welcome. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
IPM 2006 “About IPM.” Online at http://www.ipm.by/index.pl?topicid=fd8a0bb7. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
ISM 2006 “ISM—The school with a perspective.” Online at http://www.ism.lt/vid.php3?mid=1&lang=en. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
Kenny, Brian, and Bob Trick 1994 “Developing management education in the former communist countries of Europe.” European Business Review 94(1):30–39.
Killing, J. Peter 1982 “How to make a global joint venture work.” Harvard Business Review 60:120–127.
Kogut, Bruce 1988 “A study of the life cycle of joint ventures.” Management International Review 28:39–52.
Kornai, János 1992 Socialist System: Political Economy of Communism. Princeton: Princeton University Press and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Koslowski, Rey 1992 “Market institutions: East European reform, and economic theory.” Journal of Economic Issues 26:673–705.
Lang, James, and Daniel Lockhart 1990 “Increased environmental uncertainty and changes in board linkage patterns.” Academy of Management Journal 33:106–128.
Lipton, David, and Jeffrey Sachs 1990 “Privatization in Eastern Europe: The case of Poland.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2:293–341.
Madhavan, Ravindranath, and Daniel Fogel 1992 “In support of reform: Western business education in Central and Eastern Europe.” Review of Business 13(4):4–10.
March, James, and Johan Olsen 1976 Ambiguity and Choice in Organizations. Oslo-Bergen-Tromsø: Universitetsforlaget.
McPherson, J. Miller, Pamela Popielarz, and Sonja Drobnic 1992 “Social networks and organizational dynamics.” American Sociological Review 57(2):153–170.
Meyer, John, and Brian Rowan 1977 “Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony.” American Journal of Sociology 83(2):340–363.
Mizruchi, Mark, and Linda Stearns 1988 “A longitudinal study of the formation of interlocking directorates.” Administrative Science Quarterly 33:194–210.
Moratis, Lars, and Peter van Baalen 2002 “The radicalization of the multiversity: The case of the networked business school.” International Journal of Educational Management 16(4/5):160–168.
Nee, Victor 1989 “A theory of market transition: From redistribution to markets in state socialism.” American Sociological Review 54:663–681.
2005 “The new institutionalisms in economics and sociology.” In Neil Smelser and Richard Swedberg (eds.), The Handbook of Economic Sociology: 49–74. 2nd edn. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Orenstein, Mitchell 2001 Out of the Red: Building Capitalism and Democracy in Postcommunist Europe. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Padgett, John F., and Christopher K. Ansell 1993 “Robust action and the rise of the Medici, 1400–1434.” American Journal of Sociology 98(6):1259–1319.
Parkhe, Arvind 1991 “Interfirm diversity, organizational learning, and longevity in global strategic alliances.” Journal of International Business Studies 22:579–601.
Pfeffer, Jeffrey, and Phillip Nowak 1976 “Joint-ventures and interorganizational interdependence.” Administrative Science Quarterly 21:398–418.
Pfeffer, Jeffrey, and Gerald Salancik 1978 The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective. New York: Harper & Row.
Podolny, Joel 1993 “A status-based model of market competition.” American Journal of Sociology 98:829–872.
Podolny, Joel, and Karen Page 1998 “Network forms of organization.” Annual Review of Sociology 24:57–76.
Podolny, Joel, and Damon Phillips 1996 “The dynamics of organizational status.” Industrial and Corporate Change 5:453–472.
Polanyi, Karl 1957 “The economy as instituted process.” In K. Polanyi, C. Arensberg, and H. Pearson (eds.), Trade and Market in the Early Empires: 243–270. New York: Free Press.
Portes, Alejandro, and Patricia Landolt 1996 “The downsides of social capital.” American Prospect 26:18–22.
Portes, Alejandro, William J. Haller, and Luis Eduardo Guarnizo 2002 “Transnational entrepreneurs: An alternative form of immigrant adaptation.” American Sociological Review 67:278–298.
Portes, Alejandro, and Julia Sensenbrenner 1993 “Embeddedness and immigration: Notes on the social determinants of economic action.” American Journal of Sociology 98:1320–1350.
Powell, Walter 1990 “Neither market nor hierarchy: Network forms of organization.” In Barry Staw and L. L. Cummings (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior: vol. 12, 295–336. Greenwich, CT: JAI.
Powell, Walter, and Peter Brantley 1992 “Competitive cooperation in biotechnology: Learning through networks?” In Nitria Nohria and Robert Eccles (eds.), Networks and Organizations: Structure, Form and Action: 366–394. Boston: Harvard Business School.
Powell, Walter, Kenneth Koput, and Laurel Smith-Doerr 1996 “Interorganizational collaboration and the locus of innovation: Networks of learning in biotechnology.” Administrative Science Quarterly 41(1):116–145.
Powell, Walter, Kenneth Koput, Laurel Smith-Doerr, and Jason Owen-Smith 1999 “Network position and firm performance: Organizational returns to collaboration in the biotechnology industry.” Research in the Sociology of Organizations 16:129–159.
Powell, Walter, Kenneth Koput, Douglas White, and Jason Owen-Smith 2005 “Network dynamics and field evolution: The growth of interorganizational collaboration in the life sciences.” American Journal of Sociology 110(4):1132–1205.
Przeworski, Adam 1991 Democracy and the Market. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Purg, Danica 1997 “Management development in Central and Eastern Europe.” In The Directory of MBAs: 30–31. 2nd edn. London: Edward More O’Ferrall.
1999 “Management development and MBAs in Central and Eastern Europe.” In MBA Casebook 2000: Management Degrees at the World's Top Business Schools: 44–45. London: Hopsons.
Purg, Danica, and Nenad Filipović 1993 “Management development in Slovenia.” EFMD Brussels 2:36–37.
Rao, Hayagreeva 1998 “Caveat emptor: The construction of nonprofit consumer watchdog organizations.” American Journal of Sociology 4:912–951.
Rogers, Everett 1995 Diffusion of Innovations. 4th edn. New York: Free Press.
Róna-Tas, Ákos 1994 “The first shall be last? Entrepreneurship and communist cadres in the transition from socialism.” American Journal of Sociology 100(1):40–69.
Rotolo, Thomas 1999 “Trends in voluntary association participation.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(2):199–212.
Schneiberg, Marc 2005 “Combining new institutionalisms: Explaining institutional change in American property insurance.” Sociological Forum 20(1):93–137.
Sharma, Basu, and Judy Ann Roy 1996 “Aspects of the internationalization of management education.” Journal of Management Development 15(1):5.
Smith-Doerr, Laurel 2005 “Institutionalizing the network form: How life scientists legitimate work in the biotechnology industry.” Sociological Forum 20(2):271–299.
Smith-Doerr, Laurel, and Walter Powell 2005 “Networks and economic life.” In Neil Smelser and Richard Swedberg (eds.), The Handbook of Economic Sociology, 2nd edn.: 379–402. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Soule, Sarah 1997 “The student divestment movement in the United States and tactical diffusion: The shantytown protest.” Social Forces 75(3):855–882.
Spillman, Lyn 1999 “Enriching exchange: Cultural dimensions of markets.” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 58(4):1047–1073.
Staniszkis, Jadwiga 1991 The Dynamics of Breakthrough. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Stark, David 1996 “Recombinant property in East European capitalism.” American Journal of Sociology 101:993–1027.
2001 “Ambiguous assets for uncertain environments: Heterarchy in post-socialist firms.” In Paul DiMaggio (ed.), The Twenty-First-Century Firm: Changing Economic Organization in International Perspective: 69–104. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Stark, David, and László Bruszt 1998 Post-socialist Pathways: Transforming Politics and Property in East Central Europe. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stinchcombe, Arthur L. 1965 “Social structure and organizations.” In James G. March (ed.), Handbook of Organizations: 142–193. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Stinchcombe, Arthur L. 1989 “An outsider's view of network analyses of power.” In Robert Perucci and Harry Potter (eds.), Networks of Power: 119–123. New York: Aldine.
Stinchcombe, Arthur L. 1990 “Weak structural data (review of Mizruchi and Schwartz).” Contemporary Sociology 19:380–382.
UCE 2006 [Russian Character Ignored] [All about us.] Online at http://uralec.ru/home.html. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
UIB 2006 [Russian Character Ignored] [The international cooperation.] Online at http://www.uib.kz/index.php?name=Pages&op=page&pid=8. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
Uzzi, Brian 1996 “The sources and consequences of embeddedness for the economic performance of organizations: The network effect.” American Sociological Review 61:674–698.
Uzzi, Brian 1997 “Networks and the paradox of embeddedness.” Administrative Science Quarterly 42:35–67.
Van Dyke, Nella 2003 “Crossing movement boundaries: Factors that facilitate coalition protest by American college students, 1930–1990.” Social Problems 50(2):226–250.
Walder, Andrew 2003 “Elite opportunity in transitional economies.” American Sociological Review 68:899–916.
Watts, Duncan 2004 “The ‘new’ science of networks.” Annual Review of Sociology 30:243–270.
Wejnert, Barbara 2002 “Integrative models of diffusion of innovations: A conceptual framework.” Annual Review of Sociology 28:297–326.
West Pomeranian Business School 2006 “International co-operation.” Online at http://www.zpsb.szczecin.pl/english/oszkole/oszkole7.html. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
WSB-NLU 2006 “Partner universities.” Online at http://www.wsb-nlu.edu.pl/index2.php?hMenuCh=1142089770&idSubMenuID=uczelnie_partnerskie&idMenuID=wspolpraca_miedzynarodowa. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
WSPIZ 2006 “What makes us different?” Online at http://www.wspiz.edu.pl/resources/?rid=11383. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
Zelizer, Viviana 1988 “Beyond the polemics on the market: Establishing a theoretical and empirical agenda.” Sociological Forum 3(4):614–634.
Zukin, Sharon, and Paul DiMaggio 1990 “Introduction.” In Sharon Zukin and Paul DiMaggio (eds.), Structures of Capital: The Social Organization of the Economy: 1–36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Frank Dobbin, anonymous reviewers, and the editor of Sociological Forum, Robert Max Jackson, for comments and suggestions that greatly improved the paper. We also thank David Gedlička for research support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bandelj, N., Purg, D. Networks as Resources, Organizational Logic, and Change Mechanism: The Case of Private Business Schools in Post-Socialism. Sociol Forum 21, 587–622 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11206-006-9039-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11206-006-9039-x