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Female Leadership in French Voluntary Associations

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Abstract

Drawing on a recent national survey, this article focuses on the female representation on executive committees in French voluntary associations. To begin with, we observe that this representation is very unequal according to the different officer positions. It is especially low among presidents while it is markedly higher among secretaries. Then, we study the relationship between the associations’ attributes and the likelihood of women being appointed as executive committee members. Our investigation bears out some findings from previous studies on nonprofit female leadership. For instance, we show that the proportion of female officers is higher in organizations whose activities pertain to social service, health, and humanitarian sectors. It is lower in the oldest associations and it decreases as their geographical area of activity increases and as their budget becomes larger. But we also emphasize new results. First, the probabilities that women hold president, treasurer and secretary positions are highly correlated to each other. Second, the likelihood that associations have female presidents is higher in associations with few volunteers. We consider possible explanations for the latter result.

Résumé

S’appuyant sur une récente enquête nationale, cette étude s’intéresse à la représentation des femmes au sein des bureaux dans les associations françaises. Tout d’abord, nous constatons que cette représentation est très inégale selon le poste d’administratrice occupé. Elle est particulièrement faible pour les présidentes et sensiblement plus importante parmi les secrétaires. Nous étudions ensuite la relation entre les caractéristiques des associations et la probabilité pour les femmes d’être nommées en tant que membres du comité exécutif. Notre enquête confirme certains résultats de précédentes études sur l’exercice de responsabilités par les femmes dans le secteur non lucratif. Par exemple, nous montrons que la proportion de femmes administratrices est plus élevée au sein des organisations dont les activités se rapportent à des services sociaux et de santé, ainsi qu’au secteur humanitaire. Elle est plus faible dans les associations les plus anciennes et diminue à mesure que leur zone géographique d’activité s’étend et que leur budget est plus important. Nous mettons également en évidence de nouveaux résultats. Premièrement, les chances des femmes à occuper les postes de présidente, de trésorière et de secrétaire sont fortement liées entre elles. Deuxièmement, la probabilité que les associations aient des femmes présidentes est plus forte dans les associations composées de peu de bénévoles. Nous tentons d’expliquer ce dernier résultat.

Zusammenfassung

Dieser Beitrag konzentriert sich auf die Repräsentation von Frauen in Vorständen französischer gemeinnütziger Verbände, wobei er sich auf eine kürzlich durchgeführte landesweite Befragung stützt. Zunächst beobachten wir bei den unterschiedlichen Vorstandspositionen eine sehr ungleiche Repräsentation. Frauen führen sehr selten den Vorsitz, während sie jedoch weitaus häufiger Schriftführerpositionen einnehmen. Anschließend untersuchen wir die Beziehung zwischen den besonderen Merkmalen der Verbände und der Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass Frauen zu Vorstandsmitgliedern ernannt werden. Unsere Untersuchung bestätigt einige Ergebnisse früherer Studien zum Thema weibliche Führungskräfte in Nonprofit-Organisationen. Wir zeigen beispielsweise, dass der Anteil weiblicher Vorstandsmitglieder in Organisationen, die im Sozialleistungs-, Gesundheits- und humanitären Bereich tätig sind, größer ist. In den ältesten Verbänden ist der Anteil geringer und nimmt weiterhin ab, je größer die geographische Reichweite und das Budget der Organisation ist. Doch wir heben auch neue Ergebnisse hervor. Erstens ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass Frauen Positionen als Vorsitzende, Finanzdirektorinnen und Schriftführerinnen einnehmen, interdependent. Zweitens ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass eine Frau den Vorsitz eines Verbandes führt, größer in Verbänden mit wenigen ehrenamtlichen Mitarbeitern. Wir überlegen uns mögliche Erklärungen für das letztere Ergebnis.

Resumen

Basado en un reciente estudio nacional, el presente trabajo se centra en la representación femenina dentro de los comités ejecutivos de las asociaciones de voluntariado francesas. Para empezar, observamos que esta representación es muy desigual según las distintas posiciones de funcionariado, y que resulta especialmente baja entre las presidentas y marcadamente elevada entre las secretarias. A continuación estudiamos la relación entre las características de las asociaciones y la probabilidad de que las mujeres sean nombradas miembros de los comités ejecutivos. Nuestra investigación confirma algunos de los resultados de estudios anteriores sobre el liderazgo de las mujeres en las organizaciones sin ánimo de lucro. Por ejemplo, demostramos que la proporción de funcionarias es mayor en aquellas organizaciones cuyas actividades pertenecen a los sectores de servicio social, sanidad y humanitario; es inferior en asociaciones más antiguas y desciende a medida que aumenta su área geográfica de actividad y también cuando el presupuesto es mayor. Asimismo, hacemos hincapié en los nuevos resultados: en primer lugar, las probabilidades de que las mujeres ocupen puestos de presidentas, tesoreras y secretarias están altamente relacionadas entre sí. En segundo lugar, la posibilidad de que las asociaciones tengan presidentas es mayor en aquellas que tienen pocos voluntarios. Analizamos las posibles explicaciones de este último resultado.

摘要

以最近的一项全国性调查作为依据,本文着重关注女性在法国志愿者团体执行委员会中所占席位。首先,我们观察到,根据官员职位的不同,其所占比例也非常不均衡。在主席一职中所占比例特别低,但在秘书一职中却出奇地高。然后,我们研究了协会的属性和妇女被任命为执行委员会成员的可能性之间的关系。我们的调查证实了之前对非营利组织女性领导的部分研究结果。举例来说,我们证明了在从事涉及社会服务、卫生和人道主义部门相关活动的组织中,女性官员的比例较高。在成立时间很早的协会中女性比例较低,并且随着活动地域范围的扩大以及预算的增加而降低。但新的研究结果也不容忽视。首先,妇女担任主席、财务长和秘书职位的可能性的关系日益紧密。其次,在志愿者不多的协会中,女性担任主席的可能性较高。我们认为有必要对后面一项研究结果加以解释。

ملخص

هذا استقصائية وطنية أخيرة. بادئ ذي بدء، نلاحظ أن هذا التمثيل غير متكافئ جداً وفقاً لمناصب موظفين متنوعة. إنها خصوصاً منخفضة بين الرؤساء وأعلى بشكل ملحوظ بين الأمناء و السكرتارية. ثم أننا ندرس العلاقة بين سمات هذه الجمعيات وإحتمال تعيين السيدات كأعضاء في اللجنة التنفيذية. تحقيقنا يحمل بعض النتائج التي توصلت إليها الدراسات السابقة على القيادة النسائية غير هادفة للربح. على سبيل المثال، لقد تبين أن نسبة الموظفات أعلى في المنظمات التي أنشطتها تتعلق بالخدمات الاجتماعية والصحية والقطاعات الإنسانية. تقل في الجمعيات القديمة و تنقص كلما زاد النشاط الجغرافي في المنطقة وكلما أصبحت الميزانية أكبر. لكن نحن أيضا نؤكد النتائج الجديدةالبحث يركز على تمثيل المرأة في اللجان التنفيذية في الجمعيات التطوعية الفرنسية، إستناداً إلى دراسة. أولاً، الاحتمالات أن المرأة تمسك منصب الرئيس وأمين الصندوق والسكرتير مرتبط ارتباطاً عالياً كل منهما بالآخر. ثانياً، إحتمال أن الجمعيات لديها رئيسات إناث يكون أعلى في الجمعيات التي لديها عدد قليل من المتطوعين. أننا ندرس التفسيرات المحتملة للنتيجة الأخيرة.

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Notes

  1. See Le Monde, 7–8 March 2010. Departmental councillors make up the Departmental Council which is a deliberative assembly at this territorial level. The same principle applies at the regional level, but the mode of voting differs.

  2. The word “feminization” has an ambivalent meaning. It may refer to a phenomenon or to a process. In this article, we generally use the first meaning, the “feminization” or the “degree de feminization” referring to the percentage of women among leaders.

  3. Sometimes, the term social and solidarity-based economy (Économie sociale et solidaire) is used in French-speaking countries. Solidarity-based economy refers to a surge of initiatives and organisations, since the 1980s, which are aimed to meet various needs of people, for instance by creating activities which provide both new proximity services and jobs for unemployed persons (Laville 1994).

  4. An association which is not registered has no legal personality and, consequently, it cannot practise economic activities. As Archambault (1997) notices, registered associations are by far the most numerous. The founder members register the founding of their association to the prefecture, which is the main administrative office of each “department”.

  5. These estimates are given on the Website of INSEE http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?reg_id=99&ref_id=eco-socialeÂ.

  6. Many large associations follow the bylaws or “public utility associations” (in French, Associations d’utilité publique) which is a particular status granted by the State if several requirements are fulfilled (Archambault 1997).

  7. Sometimes, but quite rarely, a vice-president and a vice-treasurer are also elected. Such functions are not documented by the 2005 survey from Sorbonne Economics Center.

  8. In France, paid employees of associations may be members of the board provided that they are in a minority and more particularly that they represent less than the quarter of total members. They have not to be on the executive committee.

  9. In 2009, there were in metropolitan France 36,570 communes, 33,243 of which have less than 3,000 inhabitants.

  10. The NPISHs are an institutional sector of the national accounts.

  11. Because all characteristics were not systematically documented, for each of them we have created an “unknown” category.

  12. In our classification, the sport sector includes hunting and fishing.

  13. France has several types of territorial subdivisions. In Metropolitan France, where this survey was conducted, below the national level there are 24 regions, 96 departments, and more than 36,000 communes.

  14. The aim of this survey, which draws on a nationally representative sample of households, is to document the characteristics of individuals who participate in associations as well as the activities which they perform as participants.

  15. These results have been obtained from investigations of the authors. They are available upon request. The activities related to health, social services and charity are brought together in the same sector. If the INSEE Survey allows us to get precisions about membership and volunteer work, it is impossible to analyse the officer positions because the number of observations is too low.

  16. Referring to the after World War II period (until the 1980s), Diebolt (2001, p. 53) notes that: “Regarding the health and welfare field, it is clear that, within the space of a century, we have moved from private female philanthropy to state intervention. At the same time, women no longer play the principal role, but are incompletely represented in, and above all confined to, this field”.

  17. As regards to presidents, Table 3 does not allow such an observation.

  18. It is interesting to note that the increase of number of members in associations does not have the same negative effect on the probability that an association has a female president. Indeed, when we include the membership size as covariate, we do not observe any significant effect from this variable. The same result stands if we substitute the membership size for the number of volunteers: the membership size variable has again no significant effect on the probability that the president is a woman.

  19. In sport sector, where men are in a great majority as volunteers, the more numerous volunteers are the higher the probability that a female candidate compete with several men is. On the contrary, in social service sector, where there are many more women as volunteers, men are less serious competitors for women, even in association with many volunteers.

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Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Viviane Tchernonog for her invaluable information concerning the survey that she conducted in 2005 as a researcher at the Sorbonne Economics Center. They would also like to thank three anonymous reviewers for their helpful remarks on a first version of this article.

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Correspondence to Lionel Prouteau.

Appendix: A Trivariate Probit Model to Investigate the Effects of Association Attributes on the Feminization of Officer Positions

Appendix: A Trivariate Probit Model to Investigate the Effects of Association Attributes on the Feminization of Officer Positions

Let y 1*, y 2*, and y 3* denote the three latent variables which indicate the propensity of associations to appoint woman, respectively, to president, treasurer, and secretary positions. These variables are expressed as functions of a set of explanatory variables X and residuals ε1, ε2, and ε3. We have the following system of equations:

$$ \left( \begin{gathered} y_{1}^{*} = \beta_{1} X + \varepsilon_{1} \hfill \\ y_{2}^{*} = \beta_{2} X + \varepsilon_{2} \hfill \\ y_{3}^{*} = \beta_{3} X + \varepsilon_{3} \hfill \\ \end{gathered} \right. $$

where β i ,  for i = 1–3, are parameters to be estimated.

Having a woman who holds an officer position is denoted by y i for i = 1–3. y i is such that y i  = 1, if y i * > 0 and y i  = 0 otherwise.

The residuals ε i , for i = 1–3, are assumed to follow a trivariate normal distribution with zero mean and variance normalized to unity. The covariance matrix Σ is given by:

$$ \Upsigma = \left[ {\begin{array}{*{20}c} 1 & {\rho_{12} } & {\rho_{13} } \\ {} & 1 & {\rho_{23} } \\ {} & {} & 1 \\ \end{array} } \right] $$

where ρ12, ρ13, and ρ23 represent the correlations between the pairs of residuals (ε1, ε2), (ε1, ε3) and (ε2, ε3). Because of symmetry in covariances, we have: ρ ij  = ρ ji .

Such a model allows us to control for unobservable heterogeneity across associations. In other words, if there are unobservable association attributes which influence the recruitment of the three executive committee officers, the model will be able to take them into account. For instance, if ρ12 the coefficient of correlation between the residuals of president and treasurer equations is significantly positive, this means that unobserved association attributes which increase the probability that the president position is held by a woman, also increase the probability that associations have a female treasurer. Conversely if this coefficient is significantly negative, we can conclude that unobservable factors which enhance the probability that the president is a woman decrease the likelihood of having a female treasurer.

If these equations are estimated separately as univariate Probit models, coefficients will be inefficient unless the correlation coefficients are not significant. Our estimations are carried out with Limdep’s mvprobit command which uses the GHK (Geweke, Hajivassiliou, Keane) simulator to approximate the cumulative distribution function (see Green 2003, pp. 932–933).

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Prouteau, L., Tabariés, M. Female Leadership in French Voluntary Associations. Voluntas 21, 497–524 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-010-9139-3

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