Abstract
Glaciers in the Karakoram region are widely recognized for their historical surging phenomenon. Accurate field-based glacier monitoring is challenging in the Karakoram due to the presence of mixed-nature glaciers that are advancing, receding, and surging. Many geographers came to the opinion that surging is a thermally controlled activity in the Karakoram as opposed to a hydrologically controlled activity as a result of characteristics including high-altitude warmth, precipitation, and accumulation patterns of these glaciers. But the main surge mechanism is still a mystery. The current study used Landsat multispectral satellite datasets to examine and investigate the glaciers’ vulnerability to surging activity in the Hunza basin based on the annual surface ice flow rate and frontal snout advancement of the glaciers from 1990 to 2021. Around 80 glaciers in the Hunza basin have been researched, and based on interannual surface flow rates, it has been determined that Batura, Hassanabad II, Barpu, Gharesa, Hispar, Khurdopin, Minapin, Virjerab, Yazgil, and Ghulkin glaciers are more vulnerable to surging. The findings show that during the research period, these glaciers had surged and advanced along their snouts. The frontal snout of these glaciers advances, and moraines are deposited closer to the glacier terminus as a consequence of active surge points over the ablation region. The Hunza basin’s topography, precipitation, and thermal regimes regulate the glaciers’ surging phenomena causing successive acceleration in the glaciers. Field-based measurements made with a differential global positioning system are used to corroborate the obtained results.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The dataset utilized/analyzed during the current study will be available from the corresponding author upon request.
References
Ali S (2018) Status of major glaciers of Hunza River basin , under changing climatic conditions of Pakistan over the period of (1990-2018 ). 1–11
Ali S, Khan G, Hassan W et al (2021) Assessment of glacier status and its controlling parameters from 1990 to 2018 of Hunza basin, Western Karakorum. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:63178–63190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15154-0
Ashraf A, Naz R, Roohi R (2012) Glacial lake outburst flood hazards in Hindukush, Karakoram and Himalayan ranges of Pakistan: implications and risk analysis. Geomatics, Nat Hazards Risk 3:113–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2011.615344
Ashraf A, Roohi R, Naz R (2011) Identification of glacial flood hazards in karakorum range using remote sensing technique and risk analysis. Sci Vis 16:71–80
Ateeq M, Yi C, Xu X, Li Y (2017) Glacier status during the period 1973 e 2014 in the Hunza basin. Quat Int, Western Karakoram. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.08.029
Baig MA, Zaman Q, Baig SA et al (2021) Regression analysis of hydro-meteorological variables for climate change prediction: a case study of Chitral basin Hindukush region. Sci Total Environ 793:148595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148595
Baig SU, Muneeb F (2021) Adjustment of glacier geometries to future equilibrium line altitudes in the Shigar River basin of Karakoram Range, Pakistan. SN Appl Sci 3:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04470-2
Benn DI, Owen LA (1998) The role of the Indian summer monsoon and the mid-latitude westerlies in Himalayan glaciation: review and speculative discussion. J Geol Soc London 155:353–363. https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.155.2.0353
Bhambri R, Hewitt K, Kawishwar P, Pratap B (2017) Surge-type and surge-modified glaciers in the Karakoram. Sci Rep 7:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15473-8
Bhambri R, Hewitt K, Kawishwar P et al (2019a) Ice-dams, outburst floods, and movement heterogeneity of glaciers, Karakoram. Glob Planet Change 180:100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.05.004
Bhambri R, Hewitt K, Kawishwar P et al (2019b) Ice-dams, outburst floods, and movement heterogeneity of glaciers, Karakoram. Glob Planet Change 180:100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.05.004
Bhambri R, Watson CS, Hewitt K et al (2020) The hazardous 2017–2019 surge and river damming by Shispare Glacier, Karakoram. Sci Rep 10:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-61277-8
Björnsson H (1998) Hydrological characteristics of the drainage system beneath a surging glacier. Nature 395:771–774. https://doi.org/10.1038/27384
Björnsson H, Pálsson F, Sigurdsson O, Flowers GE (2003) Surges of glaciers in Iceland. Ann Glaciol 36:82–90. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756403781816365
Bolch T, Pieczonka T, Benn DI (2011) Multi-decadal mass loss of glaciers in the Everest area (Nepal Himalaya) derived from stereo imagery. Cryosphere 5:349–358. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-349-2011
Chalise RS, Shrestha ML, Bajracharya OR, Shrestha AB (2006) Climate change impacts on glacial lakes and glacierized basins in Nepal and implications for water resources. IAHS-AISH Publ 308:460–465
Clarke GKC (2005) Subglacial processes. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 33:247–276. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122621
Copland L, Pope S, Bishop MP et al (2009) Glacier velocities across the central Karakoram. Ann Glaciol 50:41–49. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756409789624229
Copland L, Sylvestre T, Bishop MP et al (2011) Expanded and recently increased glacier surging in the Karakoram. Arctic, Antarct Alp Res 43:503–516. https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-43.4.503
Davison BJ, Sole AJ, Livingstone SJ et al (2019) The influence of hydrology on the dynamics of land-terminating sectors of the Greenland ice sheet. Front Earth Sci 7:1–24. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2019.00010
Etzelmüller B, Vatne G, Ødegârd RS, Sollid JL (1993) Mass balance and changes of surface slope, crevasse and flow pattern of Erikbreen, northern Spitsbergen: an application of a geographical information system (GIS). Polar Res 12:131–146. https://doi.org/10.3402/polar.v12i2.6709
Flowers GE, Björnsson H, Pálsson F (2003) New insights into the subglacial and periglacial hydrology of Vatnajökull, Iceland, from a distributed physical model. J Glaciol 49:257–270. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756503781830827
Frappé TP, Clarke GKC (2007) Slow surge of Trapridge Glacier, Yukon Territory, Canada. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 112:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000607
Fu X, Zhou J (2020) Recent surge behavior of walsh glacier revealed by remote sensing data. Sensors (Switzerland) 20:1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030716
Grant KL, Stokes CR, Evans IS (2009) Identification and characteristics of surge-type glaciers on Novaya Zemlya, Russian Arctic. J Glaciol 55:960–972. https://doi.org/10.3189/002214309790794940
Hewitt K (2005) Scholars Commons @ Laurier Geography and Environmental Studies The Karakoram anomaly ? glacier expansion and the ‘ elevation effect ,’ Karakoram Himalaya. Mt Res 25:332–340. https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2005)025
Hewitt K (2007) Tributary glacier surges: an exceptional concentration at Panmah Glacier, Karakoram Himalaya. J Glaciol 53:181–188. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756507782202829
Hewitt K, Wake CP, Young GJ, David C (1989) Hydrological investigations at Biafo Glacier, Karakoram range, Himalaya: an important source of water for the Indus River. Ann Glaciol 13:103–108. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500007710
Hunza C, Garee K, Chen X et al (2017) Hydrological modeling of the Upper Indus basin : a case study from a high-altitude glacierized. Water 9:1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9010017
Hussain A (2019) A brief communication of shispar glacier surge in 2018, Hunza River basin. Pakistan. Int J Adv Geosci 7:124. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijag.v7i2.29352
Immerzeel WW (2010) Climate change will affect the the Asian water towers. Science 80(328):1382–1385. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1183188
Iturrizaga L (2011) Trends in 20th century and recent glacier fluctuations in the Karakoram Mountains. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphol 55:205–231. https://doi.org/10.1127/0372-8854/2011/0055S3-0059
Jiskoot H, Curran CJ, Tessler DL, Shenton LR (2009) Changes in Clemenceau Icefield and Chaba Group glaciers , Canada , related to hypsometry , tributary detachment , length – slope and area – aspect relations. Ann Glaciol 50:133–143
Kamb B, Raymond CF, Harrison WD et al (2009) Glacier surge mechanism : 1982-1983 surge of Variegated Glacier. Alaska 227:469–479
Khan S, Javed HZ, Wahid A et al (2020) Climate of Gilgit Baltistan Province Pakistan. Int J Econ Environ Geol 11(3):16–21
Koblet T, Gärtner-Roer I, Zemp M et al (2010) Reanalysis of multi-temporal aerial images of Storglaciären, Sweden (1959- 99) - part 1: determination of length, area, and volume changes. Cryosphere 4:333–343. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-4-333-2010
Kristensen L, Benn D (2012) A surge of the glaciers Skobreen–Paulabreen, Svalbard, observed by time-lapse photographs and remote sensing data. Polar Res 31:11106. https://doi.org/10.3402/polar.v31i0.11106
Latif Y, Ma Y, Ma W (2021) Climatic trends variability and concerning flow regime of Upper Indus basin, Jehlum, and Kabul river basins Pakistan. Theor Appl Climatol 144:447–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-021-03529-9
Leprince S, Barbot S, Ayoub F, Avouac JP (2007) Automatic and precise orthorectification, coregistration, and subpixel correlation of satellite images, application to ground deformation measurements. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 45:1529–1558. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2006.888937
Lv M, Guo H, Yan J et al (2020) Distinguishing glaciers between surging and advancing by remote sensing: a case study in the Eastern Karakoram. Remote Sens 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12142297
Marston RA (2011) Glacial drainage characteristics
Mayer C, Fowler AC, Lambrecht A, Scharrer K (2011) A surge of North Gasherbrum Glacier, Karakoram, China. J Glaciol 57:904–916. https://doi.org/10.3189/002214311798043834
Meier F (1964) Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. Nature 203:1227. https://doi.org/10.1038/2031227a0
Mukhopadhyay B, Khan A, Gautam R (2015a) Rising and falling river flows: contrasting signals of climate change and glacier mass balance from the eastern and western Karakoram. Hydrol Sci J 60:2062–2085. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.947291
Mukhopadhyay B, Khan A, Gautam R (2015b) Débits à la hausse et à la baisse : signaux contrastés due changement climatique et de l’équilibre massique des glaciers du Karakoram oriental et occidental. Hydrol Sci J 60:2062–2085. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.947291
NoRandolph Glacier Inventory (2017) A dataset of global glacier outlines: version 6.0 GLIMS technical report RGI consortium*, July 2017 *. RGI Consort 1–71
Paul F, Strozzi T, Schellenberger T, Kaab A (2017) The 2015 surge of hispar glacier in the Karakoram. Remote Sens 9:11–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9090888
Peng Y, Li Z, Xu C et al (2021) Surface velocity analysis of surge region of Karayaylak glacier from 2014 to 2020 in the Pamir plateau. Remote Sens 13:1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13040774
Program G, Son H (1977) Geometry and dynamics of a surge-type glacier by by thermal triggering (Bindschadler and others, 1976). Detailed compilations of data are presented in three reports available through World Data Center A- Glaciology (Bindschadler and others, unpubli). J Glaciol 18:181–194
Quincey DJ, Braun M, Glasser NF et al (2011) Karakoram glacier surge dynamics. Geophys Res Lett 38. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049004
Quincey DJ, Glasser NF, Cook SJ, Luckman A (2015) Journal of Geophysical Research : Earth Surface Heterogeneity in Karakoram glacier surges. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 120:1288–1300. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003515.Received
Qureshi MA, Yi C, Xu X, Li Y (2017) Glacier status during the period 1973–2014 in the Hunza basin, Western Karakoram. Quat Int 444:125–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.08.029
Racoviteanu AE, Williams MW, Barry RG (2008) Optical remote sensing of glacier characteristics: a review with focus on the Himalaya. Sensors 8:3355–3383. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8053355
Rashid I, Majeed U, Jan A, Glasser NF (2020) The January 2018 to September 2019 surge of Shisper Glacier, Pakistan, detected from remote sensing observations. Geomorphology 351:106957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.106957
Reynolds JM (2016) Glacial behaviour in the Upper Indus basin and implications for hydropower development. 1–8
Round V, Leinss S, Huss M et al (2017) Surge dynamics and lake outbursts of Kyagar Glacier, Karakoram. Cryosphere 11:723–739. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-723-2017
Saifullah M, Liu S, Adnan M et al (2021) Risks of glaciers lakes outburst flood along China Pakistan economic corridor. Glaciers Polar Environ. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93459
Scherler D, Leprince S, Strecker MR (2008) Glacier-surface velocities in alpine terrain from optical satellite imagery-accuracy improvement and quality assessment. Remote Sens Environ 112:3806–3819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.05.018
Scherler D, Bookhagen B, Strecker MR (2011) Hillslope‐glacier coupling: The interplay of topography and glacial dynamics in High Asia. J Geophys Res: Earth Surf 116:1–21
Sevestre H, Benn DI (2015) Climatic and geometric controls on the global distribution of surge-type glaciers: implications for a unifying model of surging. J Glaciol 61:646–662. https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG14J136
Singh G, Nela BR, Bandyopadhyay D et al (2020) Discovering anomalous dynamics and disintegrating behaviour in glaciers of Chandra-Bhaga sub-basins, part of Western Himalaya using DInSAR. Remote Sens Environ 246:111885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.111885
Singh KK, Negi HS, Singh DK (2019) Assessment of glacier stored water in Karakoram Himalaya using satellite remote sensing and field investigation. J Mt Sci 16:836–849. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-018-5121-0
Sivalingam S, Murugesan GP, Dhulipala K et al (2021a) Essential study of Karakoram Glacier velocity products extracted using various techniques. Geocarto Int 45
Sivalingam S, Murugesan GP, Dhulipala K et al (2021b) Temporal fluctuations of Siachen Glacier velocity: a repeat pass sar interferometry based approach. Geocarto Int 0:1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2021.1899306
Sivaranjani S, Geetha Priya M, Krishnaveni D (2021) Glacier surface flow velocity of Hunza basin, Karakoram using satellite optical data. Adv Intell Syst Comput 1176:669–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5788-0_63
Sivaranjani S, Priya MG, Krishnaveni D (2020) Glacier surface flow velocity of Hunza basin. In: Karakoram using satellite glacier surface flow velocity of Hunza basin , Karakoram using satellite optical. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5788-0
Snow C, Ndspcsi I, Mazhar N et al (2021) Mapping fluctuations of Hispar Glacier , Karakoram , using normalized difference snow index ( NDSI ) and normalized difference principal. https://doi.org/10.46660/ijeeg.Vol11.Iss4.2020.516
Steiner JF, Kraaijenbrink PDA, Jiduc SG, Immerzeel WW (2017) Brief Communication: The Khurdopin glacier surge revisited – extreme flow velocities and formation of a dammed lake in 2017. Cryosph Discuss 1999:1–7. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2017-135
Sterckx A, Lemieux JM, Vaikmäe R (2017) Representing glaciations and subglacial processes in hydrogeological models: a numerical investigation. Geofluids 2017. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/4598902
Storey J, Scaramuzza P, Schmidt G (2005) Landsat 7 scan line corrector-off gap-filled product gap-filled product development process. In: Pecora 16 “Global priorities in land remote sensing.” Sioux Falls, South Dakota, pp 1–13
Sund M, Eiken T, Hagen JO, Kääb A (2009) Svalbard surge dynamics derived from geometric changes. Ann Glaciol 50:50–60. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756409789624265
Wu K, Liu S, Jiang Z et al (2020) Surging dynamics of glaciers in the Hunza Valley under an equilibrium mass state since 1990. Remote Sens 12:1–21
Wu Z, Zhang H, Liu S et al (2019) Fluctuation analysis in the dynamic characteristics of continental glacier based on Full-Stokes model. Sci Rep 9:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-56864-3
Wuzhen ZH, Liu S et al (2018) Numerical modeling of the seasonal dynamic characteristics of the Koxkar Glacier, in West Tianshan, China. J Geol Soc India 92:457–464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-018-1041-4
Xie F, Liu S, Wu K et al (2020) Upward expansion of supra-glacial debris cover in the Hunza Valley, Karakoram, during 1990 ∼ 2019. Front Earth Sci 8:1–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00308
Zhang J, Jia L, Menenti M, Ren S (2021) Interannual and seasonal variability of glacier surface velocity in the Parlung Zangbo basin, Tibetan Plateau. Remote Sens 13:1–29. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13010080
Zhou Y, Chen J, Cheng X (2021) Glacier velocity changes in the Himalayas in relation to ice mass balance. Remote Sens 13:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13193825
Zongli J, Shiyin L, Sichun L, Xin W (2012) Estimate Yengisogat Glacier surface flow velocities using ALOS PALSAR data feature-tracking, Karakoram,China. Procedia Environ Sci 12:646–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2012.01.330
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and cooperation given by Dr. Krishna Venkatesh, Director, Centre for Incubation, Innovation, Research and Consultancy (CIIRC)-Jyothy Institute of Technology, Bengaluru.
Funding
This study was supported by Network on Himalayan Cryosphere (NHC) (also known as “Strategic Programmes Large Initiatives and Coordinated Action Enabler-Climate Change Program” (SPLICE-CCP)), Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, under the National Network Program on Himalayan Cryosphere with the project no. DST/CCP/NHC/156/2018(G).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Geetha Priya Murugesan conceptualized the idea, wrote the proposal DST, and provided the necessary resources to carry out this research. Geetha Priya Murugesan supervised Sivaranjani Sivalingam throughout this study. Sivaranjani Sivalingam and Krishnaveni Dhulipala processed and analyzed the datasets. Geetha Priya Murugesan and Sivaranjani Sivalingam wrote the manuscript. Anil Vishnupant Kulkarni and Suresh Devaraj provided essential technical inputs that helped improve the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
All ethical practices have been followed concerning the development, data analysis, writing, and publication of this research article.
Consent to participate
Consent to participate is “Not applicable” to the manuscript.
Consent for publication
The datasets used in the present study are open-access datasets downloaded from the ESA Data hub and USGS Earth Explorer. The results are generated by the author in the laboratory. None of the data used in this study belongs to a person in any form.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Sivalingam, S., Murugesan, G.P., Kulkarni, A.V. et al. Study of dynamics in surface ice flow rate of glaciers in Hunza basin, Karakoram. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 62782–62802 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26441-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26441-3