Abstract
Treatment of biodegradable waste using the black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) is an emerging waste treatment technology attracting entrepreneurial activities around the globe, mainly because the larvae grown on the waste have the potential to become starting material for several commercial products such as animal feed, biodiesel, chitin as a biopolymer, and soil fertilizer. Insect-based waste treatment technology offers a financially viable solution for the solid waste problem mitigation, which otherwise has been an arduous task for many parts of the globe, especially for the developing nations. Although considered a better alternative than other well-established technologies such as composting or anaerobic digestion, the technology is still in its infancy. The researchers and entrepreneurs who wish to gain an insight into and develop the BSFL-based waste processing technology further, require to have a holistic understanding of the various ways in which the performance of BSFL technology can be enhanced and its scaling-up can be formulated to solve the waste management problems in community- and city-level. This review article is a collection of state-of-the-art knowledge on various aspects related to the technology development for full-scale utilization for commercialization purposes, such as the artificial rearing techniques of BSF, waste stabilization performances of the BSFL at different environmental conditions, and the effects of micronutrients and associated microorganism communities.
Graphic abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adeniyi OV, Folorunsho C (2015) Performance of Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822) fed dietary levels of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus, 1758) prepupae meal as a protein supplement. Int J Res Fish Aquac 5:89–93
Adewale P, Dumont MJ, Ngadi M (2015) Recent trends of biodiesel production from animal fat wastes and associated production techniques. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 45:574–588
Allegretti G, Talamini E, Schmidt V et al (2018) Insect as feed: An emergy assessment of insect meal as a sustainable protein source for the Brazilian poultry industry. J Clean Prod 171:403–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.244
Alyokhin A, Buzza A, Beaulieu J (2019) Effects of food substrates and moxidectin on development of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens. J Appl Entomol 143:137–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/jen.12557
Ao Y, Yang C, Wang S et al (2020) Characteristics and nutrient function of intestinal bacterial communities in black soldier fly ( Hermetia illucens L.) larvae in livestock manure conversion. Microb Biotechnol 14:886–896. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13595
Arango Gutiérrez GP, Vergara Ruiz RA, Mejía Vélez H (2004) Compositional, microbiological and protein digestibility analysis of larval meal of Hermetia illucens (Diptera:Stratiomyiidae) at Angelópolis-Antioquia, Colombia. Rev Fac Nac Agron Medellín 57:2491–2499
ASTM D6751–15c (2010) Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel Blend Stock (B100) for Middle Distillate Fuels. ASTM Int i:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1520/D6751
Attiogbe FK, Ayim NYK, Martey J (2019) Effectiveness of black soldier fly larvae in composting mercury contaminated organic waste. Sci Afr 6:R10024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00205
Banks IJ, Gibson WT, Cameron MM (2014) Growth rates of black soldier fly larvae fed on fresh human faeces and their implication for improving sanitation. Trop Med Int Heal 19:14–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12228
Barragán-Fonseca K, Pineda-Mejia J, Dicke M, Van Loon JJA (2018) Performance of the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) on vegetable residue-based diets formulated based on protein and carbohydrate contents. J Econ Entomol 111:2676–2683. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toy270
Barragan-Fonseca KB, Dicke M, van Loon JJA (2018) Influence of larval density and dietary nutrient concentration on performance, body protein, and fat contents of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens). Entomol Exp Appl 166:761–770. https://doi.org/10.1111/eea.12716
Beaver LM, Gvakharia BO, Vollintine TS et al (2002) Loss of circadian clock function decreases reproductive fitness in males of Drosophila melanogaster. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:2134–2139. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.032426699
Beets WC (1997) The need for an increased use of small and mini-livestock in integrated smallholder farming systems. Ecol Food Nutr 36:237–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/03670244.1997.9991518
Begon M, Townsend CD, Harper JL (2006) ECOLOGY From Individuals to Ecosystems, 4th edn. Wiley-Blackwell, London
Bertinetti C, Samayoa AC, Hwang SY (2019) Effects of feeding adults of hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) on longevity, oviposition, and egg hatchability: Insights into optimizing egg production. J Insect Sci 19:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1093/jisesa/iez001
Beskin KV, Holcomb CD, Cammack JA et al (2018) Larval digestion of different manure types by the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) impacts associated volatile emissions. Waste Manag 74:213–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.01.019
Bhatnagar A, Sillanpää M (2009) Applications of chitin- and chitosan-derivatives for the detoxification of water and wastewater—a short review. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 152:26–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2009.09.003
Boccazzi IV, Ottoboni M, Martin E et al (2017) A survey of the mycobiota associated with larvae of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) reared for feed production. PLoS ONE 12:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182533
Bondari K, Sheppard DC (1987) Soldier fly, Hermetia illucens L., larvae as feed for channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque), and blue tilapia, Oreochromis aureus (Steindachner). Aquac Res 18:209–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.1987.tb00141.x
Booth DC, Sheppard C (1984) Oviposition of the black soldier fly, hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): eggs, masses, timing, and site characteristics. Environ Entomol 13:421–423. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/13.2.421
Bulak P, Polakowski C, Nowak K et al (2018) Hermetia illucens as a new and promising species for use in entomoremediation. Sci Total Environ 633:912–919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.252
Bursell E (1967) The excretion of nitrogen in insects. Adv Insect Phys 4:33–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2806(08)60207-6
Cai M, Zhang K, Zhong W et al (2019) Bioconversion-composting of golden needle mushroom (Flammulina velutipes) root waste by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae, to obtain added-value biomass and fertilizer. Waste Biomass Valorization 10:265–273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-017-0063-2
Caligiani A, Marseglia A, Leni G et al (2018) Composition of black soldier fly prepupae and systematic approaches for extraction and fractionation of proteins, lipids and chitin. Food Res Int 105:812–820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2017.12.012
Cammack JA, Tomberlin JK (2017) The impact of diet protein and carbohydrate on select life-history traits of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Insects 8:56. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects8020056
Chen J, Hou D, Pang W et al (2019) Effect of moisture content on greenhouse gas and NH3 emissions from pig manure converted by black soldier fly. Sci Total Environ 697:133840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133840
Cheng JYK, Chiu SLH, Lo IMC (2017) Effects of moisture content of food waste on residue separation, larval growth and larval survival in black soldier fly bioconversion. Waste Manag 67:315–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.05.046
Chia SY, Tanga CM, Khamis FM et al (2018a) Threshold temperatures and thermal requirements of black soldier fly Hermetia illucens: Implications for mass production. PLoS ONE 13:1–26. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206097
Chia SY, Tanga CM, Osuga IM et al (2018b) Effects of waste stream combinations from brewing industry on performance of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). PeerJ 2018:e5885. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5885
Choct M, Hughes RJ, Wang J et al (1996) Increased small intestinal fermentation is partly responsible for the anti-nutritive activity of non-starch polysaccharides in chickens. Br Poult Sci 37:609–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071669608417891
Čičková H, Newton GL, Lacy RC, Kozánek M (2015) The use of fly larvae for organic waste treatment. Waste Manag 35:68–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.09.026
Copello A (1926) Biologia de Hermetia illucens Latr. Rev Soc Entomol Argentina 1:23–27
Craig Sheppard D, Larry Newton G, Thompson SA, Savage S (1994) A value added manure management system using the black soldier fly. Bioresour Technol 50:275–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-8524(94)90102-3
Cullere M, Tasoniero G, Giaccone V et al (2016) Black soldier fly as dietary protein source for broiler quails: Apparent digestibility, excreta microbial load, feed choice, performance, carcass and meat traits. Animal 10:1923–1930. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731116001270
Daufresne T, Loreau M (2001) Ecological stoichiometry, primary producer–decomposer interactions, and ecosystem persistence. Ecology 82(11):3069–3082. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[3069:ESPPDI]2.0.CO;2
D’Hondt E, Soetemans L, Bastiaens L et al (2020) Simplified determination of the content and average degree of acetylation of chitin in crude black soldier fly larvae samples. Carbohydr Res 488:107899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2019.107899
De Marco M, Martínez S, Hernandez F et al (2015) Nutritional value of two insect larval meals (Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens) for broiler chickens: Apparent nutrient digestibility, apparent ileal amino acid digestibility and apparent metabolizable energy. Anim Feed Sci Technol 209:211–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.08.006
De Smet J, Wynants E, Cos P, Van Campenhout L (2018) Microbial community dynamics during rearing of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) and impact on exploitation potential. Appl Environ Microbiol 84:e02722. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02722-17
Diener S, Studt Solano NM, Roa Gutiérrez F et al (2011a) Biological treatment of municipal organic waste using black soldier fly larvae. Waste Biomass Valorization 2:357–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-011-9079-1
Diener S, Zurbrugg C, Roa Gutiérrez F et al (2011b) Black soldier fly larvae for organic waste treatment - prospects and constraints. In: WasteSafe 2011 2nd International Conference on Solid Waste Management Dev Ctries 1315 February 2011, vol 52. Khulna Bangladesh, pp 978–984
Diener S, Zurbrügg C, Tockner K (2015) Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens and effects on its life cycle. J Insects Food Feed 1:261–270. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2015.0030
Diener S, Zurbrügg C, Tockner K (2009) Conversion of organic material by black soldier fly larvae: establishing optimal feeding rates. Waste Manag Res 27:603–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X09103838
Dobermann D, Field LM, Michaelson LV (2019) Using hermetia illucens to process ugandan waragi waste. J Clean Prod 211:303–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.176
Doelle K, Oliveira FR, Smith RP (2016) Gold nanoparticle uptake and distribution in the digestive tract of Hermetia illucens stratiomyidae: diptera (L.1758) based on transmission electron microscopy. Annu Res Rev Biol 9:1–8. https://doi.org/10.9734/ARRB/2016/23907
Dortmans BMA, Diener S, Verstappen BM, Zurbrügg C (2017) Black Soldier Fly Biowaste Processing—A Step-by-Step Guide. Eawag-Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology. Department of Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec): Dübendorf, Switzerland, Dübendorf, Switzerland
Dow JA (2017) The essential roles of metal ions in insect homeostasis and physiology. Curr Opin Insect Sci 23:43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2017.07.001
Dzepe D, Nana P, Fotso A et al (2020) Influence of larval density, substrate moisture content and feedstock ratio on life history traits of black soldier fly larvae. J Insects Food Feed 6:133–140. https://doi.org/10.3920/jiff2019.0034
EN-14214 Biodiesel Fuel Testing Europe EN-14214. https://www.intertek.com/biofuels/biodiesel/en-14214/. Accessed 2 Jun 2020
Ermolaev E, Lalander C, Vinnerås B (2019) Greenhouse gas emissions from small-scale fly larvae composting with Hermetia illucens. Waste Manag 96:65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.07.011
European Parliament and the Council of the EU (2002) Directive of The European Parliament and of the Council of 7 May 2002 on undesirable substances in animal feed 2002/32. Off J Eur Communities 7:1–15
Farrell D (2013) Poultry Development Review. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome
Fowles TM, Nansen C (2019) Insect-based bioconversion: Value from food waste. In: Food waste management: solving the wicked problem. Springer International Publishing, pp 321–346
Furman DP, Young RD, Catts PE (1959) Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus) as a factor in the natural control of musca domestica linnaeus. J Econ Entomol 52:917–921. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/52.5.917
Gao Q, Wang X, Wang W et al (2017) Influences of chromium and cadmium on the development of black soldier fly larvae. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:8637–8644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8550-3
Gayatri GR, Madhuri PK (2013) Occurrence of Black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in biocompost. Res J Recent Sci 2:65–66
Gartner TB, Cardon ZG (2004) Decomposition dynamics in mixed-species leaf litter. Oikos 104(2):230–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0030-1299.2004.12738.x
Georgescu B, Struti D, Papuc T et al (2020) Body weight loss of black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) during development in non-feeding stages: Implications for egg clutch parameters. Eur J Entomol 117:216–225. https://doi.org/10.14411/eje.2020.023
Giebultowicz JM, Ridgway RL, Imberski RB (1990) Physiological basis for sterilizing effects of constant light in Lymantria dispar. Physiol Entomol 15:149–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1990.tb00502.x
Giunti G, Campolo O, Laudani F, Palmeri V (2018) Male courtship behaviour and potential for female mate choice in the black soldier fly hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Entomol Gen 38:29–46. https://doi.org/10.1127/entomologia/2018/0657
Gligorescu A, Toft S, Hauggaard-Nielsen H et al (2018) Development, metabolism and nutrient composition of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens; Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in relation to temperature and diet. J Insects as Food Feed 4:123–133. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2017.0080
Gold M, Cassar CM, Zurbrügg C et al (2020) Biowaste treatment with black soldier fly larvae: Increasing performance through the formulation of biowastes based on protein and carbohydrates. Waste Manag 102:319–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.036
Gold M, Tomberlin JK, Diener S et al (2018) Decomposition of biowaste macronutrients, microbes, and chemicals in black soldier fly larval treatment: A review. Waste Manag 82:302–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.10.022
Green, YS (2018) Looking for artificial lights for adult black soldier fly. https://www.evoconsys.com/blog/looking-for-artificial-lights-for-adult-black-soldier-fly
Hardouin J, Mahoux G (2003) Zootechnie d’insectes – Elevage et utilisation au bénéfice de l’homme et de certains animaux. Bureau pour l’Echange et la Distribution de l’Information sur le Mini-élevage (BEDIM), 164 p. Bureau pour l’Echange et la Distribution de l’Information sur le Mini-Elevage (BEDIM)
Hasnol S, Kiatkittipong K, Kiatkittipong W et al (2020a) A review on insights for green production of unconventional protein and energy sources derived from the larval biomass of black soldier fly. Processes 8:523. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050523
Hasnol S, Lim JW, Wong CY et al (2020b) Liminal presence of exo-microbes inoculating coconut endosperm waste to enhance black soldier fly larval protein and lipid. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09034-2
Heussler CD, Walter A, Oberkofler H et al (2018) Influence of three artificial light sources on oviposition and half-life of the black soldier fly, hermetia illucens (diptera: Stratiomyidae): Improving small-scale indoor rearing. PLoS ONE 13:40–45. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197896
Heyde VS Von Der (2014) Towards a sustainable incremental waste management system in Enkanini: A transdisciplinary case study in Sustainable Development Planning and Management in the. Proc 20th WasteCon Conf 6–10 Oct 2014 Somerset West, Cape T, pp 16–23
Hoc B, Noël G, Carpentier J et al (2019) Optimization of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) artificial reproduction. PLoS ONE 14:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216160
Holmes LA, Vanlaerhoven SL, Tomberlin JK (2012) Relative humidity effects on the life history of hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Environ Entomol 41:971–978. https://doi.org/10.1603/en12054
Holmes LA, VanLaerhoven SL, Tomberlin JK (2016) Lower temperature threshold of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) development. J Insects as Food Feed 2:255–262. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2016.0008
Horie Y, Watanabe K (1983) Effect of various kinds of dietary protein and supplementation with limiting amino acids on growth, haemolymph components and uric acid excretion in the silkworm, Bombyx mori. J Insect Physiol 29:187–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1910(83)90143-9
Ishak S, Kamari A (2018) Biodiesel from black soldier fly larvae grown on restaurant kitchen waste. Environ Chem Lett 17:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-018-00844-y
Kim W-T, Bae S-W, Park H-C et al (2010) The larval age and mouth morphology of the black soldier fly, hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Int J Ind Entomol 21:185–187
Kroeckel S, Harjes AGE, Roth I et al (2012) When a turbot catches a fly: evaluation of a pre-pupae meal of the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) as fish meal substitute—Growth performance and chitin degradation in juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture 364–365:345–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.08.041
Kyntäjä S, Partanen K, Siljander-Rasi H, Jalava T (2014) Tables of composition and nutritional values of organically produced feed materials for pigs and poultry
Lalander C, Diener S, Magri ME et al (2013) Faecal sludge management with the larvae of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)—from a hygiene aspect. Sci Total Environ 458–460:312–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.04.033
Lalander CH, Fidjeland J, Diener S et al (2015) High waste-to-biomass conversion and efficient Salmonella spp. reduction using black soldier fly for waste recycling. Agron Sustain Dev 35:261–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-014-0235-4
Lalander C, Diener S, Zurbrügg C, Vinnerås B (2019) Effects of feedstock on larval development and process efficiency in waste treatment with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). J Clean Prod 208:211–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.017
Lalander C, Ermolaev E, Wiklicky V, Vinnerås B (2020) Process efficiency and ventilation requirement in black soldier fly larvae composting of substrates with high water content. Sci Total Environ 729:138968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138968
Lee J, Kim YM, Park YK et al (2018) Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae enhances immune activities and increases survivability of broiler chicks against experimental infection of Salmonella Gallinarum. J Vet Med Sci 80:736–740. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.17-0236
Leong SY, Kutty SRM, Malakahmad A, Tan CK (2016) Feasibility study of biodiesel production using lipids of Hermetia illucens larva fed with organic waste. Waste Manag 47:84–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.03.030
Li L, Wang Y, Wang J (2016) Intra-puparial development and age estimation of forensically important Hermetia illucens (L.). J Asia Pac Entomol 19:233–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2016.01.006
Li Q, Zheng L, Cai H et al (2011a) From organic waste to biodiesel: black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, makes it feasible. Fuel 90:1545–1548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2010.11.016
Li Q, Zheng L, Qiu N et al (2011b) Bioconversion of dairy manure by black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) for biodiesel and sugar production. Waste Manag 31:1316–1320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2011.01.005
Li W, Li M, Zheng L et al (2015) Simultaneous utilization of glucose and xylose for lipid accumulation in black soldier fly. Biotechnol Biofuels 8:117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-015-0306-z
Li W, Li Q, Wang YY et al (2018) Efficient bioconversion of organic wastes to value-added chemicals by soaking, black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) and anaerobic fermentation. J Environ Manage 227:267–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.08.084
Liu T, Awasthi MK, Awasthi SK et al (2020) Effects of black soldier fly larvae (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) on food waste and sewage sludge composting. J Environ Manage 256:109967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109967
Liu T, Awasthi MK, Chen H et al (2019) Performance of black soldier fly larvae (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) for manure composting and production of cleaner compost. J Environ Manage 251:109593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109593
Liu Z, Minor M, Morel PCH, Najar-rodriguez AJ (2018) Bioconversion of three organic wastes by black soldier fly ( Diptera : Stratiomyidae ) larvae. 47:1609–1617. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvy141
Maas F (1997) North Central Regional Research Publication No. 340, Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station Special Report No. 99. In: Langhans RW, Tibbitts TW (eds) Plant Growth Chamber Handbook, Agriculture Information Services, New York, Chicester, Weinheim, Brisbane, Singapore, Toronto, p 240
Ma J, Lei Y, Rehman KU et al (2018) Dynamic effects of initial pH of z (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Environ Entomol 47:159–165. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvx186
Magalhães R, Sánchez-López A, Leal RS et al (2017) Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) pre-pupae meal as a fish meal replacement in diets for European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax). Aquaculture 476:79–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.04.021
Manaf ISA, Embong NH, Khazaai SNM et al (2019) A review for key challenges of the development of biodiesel industry. Energy Convers Manag 185:508–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.02.019
Meneguz M, Gasco L, Tomberlin JK (2018a) Impact of pH and feeding system on black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, L; Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development. PLoS ONE 13:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202591
Meneguz M, Schiavone A, Gai F et al (2018b) Effect of rearing substrate on growth performance, waste reduction efficiency and chemical composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. J Sci Food Agric 98:5776–5784. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9127
Mertenat A, Diener S, Zurbrügg C (2019) Black Soldier Fly biowaste treatment—assessment of global warming potential. Waste Manag 84:173–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.11.040
Miranda CD, Cammack JA, Tomberlin JK (2019) Life-history traits of the black soldier fly, hermetia illucens (L.) (diptera: Stratiomyidae), reared on three manure types. Animals 9:281. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9050281
Mohd-Noor SN, Wong CY, Lim JW et al (2017) Optimization of self-fermented period of waste coconut endosperm destined to feed black soldier fly larvae in enhancing the lipid and protein yields. Renew Energy 111:646–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.04.067
Morgan NO, Eby HJ (1975) Fly protein production from mechanically mixed animal wastes. Isr J Entomol 10:73–81
Myers HM, Tomberlin JK, Lambert BD, Kattes D (2008) Development of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae fed dairy manure. Environ Entomol 37:11–15. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/37.1.11
Nakagaki BJ, Defoliart GR (1991) Comparison of diets for mass-rearing acheta domesticus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) as a novelty food, and comparison of food conversion efficiency with values reported for livestock. J Econ Entomol 84:891–896. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/84.3.891
Nakamura S, Ichiki RT, Shimoda M, Morioka S (2016) Small-scale rearing of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), in the laboratory: low-cost and year-round rearing. Appl Entomol Zool 51:161–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13355-015-0376-1
Nathan AJ, Scobell A (2012) How China sees America. Food and agriculture organization of the United nations (FAO)
Nery J, Gasco L, Dabbou S, Schiavone A (2018) Protein composition and digestibility of black soldier fly larvae in broiler chickens revisited according to the recent nitrogen-protein conversion ratio. J Insects Food Feed 4:171–177. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2018.0006
Newton GL, Booram CV, Barker RW, Hale OM (1977) Dried hermetia illucens larvae meal as a supplement for swine. J Anim Sci 44:395–400. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas1977.443395x
Newton GL, Sheppard DC, Watson DW et al (2004) The Black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, as a manure management / resource recovery tool. Symp State Sci Anim Manure Waste Manag 57:1–5
Newton L, Craig S, Wes DW et al (2005) Using the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, as a value-added tool for the management of swine manure. J Korean Entomol Appl Sci 36:17
Nguyen DT, Bouguet V, Spranghers T et al (2015) Beneficial effect of supplementing an artificial diet for Amblyseius swirskii with Hermetia illucens haemolymph. J Appl Entomol 139:342–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/jen.12188
Nguyen HC, Liang SH, Doan TT et al (2017) Lipase-catalyzed synthesis of biodiesel from black soldier fly (Hermetica illucens): Optimization by using response surface methodology. Energy Convers Manag 145:335–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.05.010
Nguyen HC, Liang SH, Li SY et al (2018) Direct transesterification of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) for biodiesel production. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 85:165–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2018.01.035
Nguyen TTX, Tomberlin JK, Vanlaerhoven S (2013) Influence of Resources on <I>Hermetia illucens</I> (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larval Development. J Med Entomol 50:898–906. https://doi.org/10.1603/me12260
Nijhout HF (2003) The control of body size in insects. Dev Biol 261:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-1606(03)00276-8
Nyakeri EM, Ayieko MA, Amimo FA et al (2019) An optimal feeding strategy for black soldier fly larvae biomass production and faecal sludge reduction. J Insects as Food Feed 5:201–213. https://doi.org/10.3920/jiff2018.0017
Nyakeri EM, Ogola HJ, Ayieko MA, Amimo FA (2017a) An open system for farming black soldier fly larvae as a source of proteins for smallscale poultry and fish production. J Insects as Food Feed 3:51–56. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2016.0030
Nyakeri EM, Ogola HJO, Amimo FA, Ayieko MA (2017b) Comparison of the performance of different baiting attractants in the egg laying activity of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.). 5:1583–1586
Nyakeri EM, Ogola HJO, Ayieko MA, Amimo FA (2017c) Valorisation of organic waste material: growth performance of wild black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) reared on different organic wastes. J Insects as Food Feed 3:193–202. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2017.0004
Onsongo VO, Osuga IM, Gachuiri CK et al (2018) Insects for income generation through animal feed: Effect of dietary replacement of soybean and fish meal with black soldier fly meal on broiler growth and economic performance. J Econ Entomol 111:1966–1973. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toy118
Oonincx DGAB, Van Broekhoven S, Van Huis A, Van Loon JJA (2015a) Feed conversion, survival and development, and composition of four insect species on diets composed of food by-products. PLoS ONE 10:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144601
Oonincx DGAB, van Huis A, van Loon JJA (2015b) Nutrient utilisation by black soldier flies fed with chicken, pig, or cow manure. J Insects as Food Feed 1:131–139. https://doi.org/10.3920/jiff2014.0023
Oonincx DGAB, Volk N, Diehl JJE et al (2016) Photoreceptor spectral sensitivity of the compound eyes of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) informing the design of LED-based illumination to enhance indoor reproduction. J Insect Physiol 95:133–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2016.10.006
Palma L, Ceballos SJ, Johnson PC et al (2018) Cultivation of black soldier fly larvae on almond byproducts: impacts of aeration and moisture on larvae growth and composition. J Sci Food Agric 98:5893–5900. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9252
Palma L, Fernandez-Bayo J, Niemeier D et al (2019) Managing high fiber food waste for the cultivation of black soldier fly larvae. Sci Food 3:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-019-0047-7
Pang W, Hou D, Chen J et al (2020) Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon and nitrogen conversion in food wastes by the black soldier fly. J Environ Manage 260:110066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110066
Parra Paz AS, Carrejo NS, Gómez Rodríguez CH (2015) Effects of larval density and feeding rates on the bioconversion of vegetable waste using black soldier fly larvae Hermetia illucens (L.), (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Waste and Biomass Valorization 6:1059–1065. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-015-9418-8
Patrick ML, Gonzalez RJ, Wood CM et al (2002) The characterization of ion regulation in Amazonian mosquito larvae: Evidence of phenotypic plasticity, population-based disparity, and novel mechanisms of ion uptake. Physiol Biochem Zool 75:223–236. https://doi.org/10.1086/342002
Perednia DA, Anderson J, Rice A (2017) A comparison of the greenhouse gas production of black soldier fly larvae versus aerobic microbial decomposition of an … feed material. Res Rev J Ecol Environ Sci 5:10–16
Proc K, Bulak P, Wiącek D, Bieganowski A (2020) Hermetia illucens exhibits bioaccumulative potential for 15 different elements – Implications for feed and food production. Sci Total Environ 723:138125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138125
Purkayastha D, Sarkar S (2020) Physicochemical structure analysis of chitin extracted from pupa exuviae and dead imago of wild black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). J Polym Environ 28:445–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-019-01620-x
Purkayastha D, Sarkar S, Roy P, Kazmi A (2017) Isolation and morphological study of ecologically-important insect “Hermetia Illucens” collected from roorkee compost plant. Pollution 3:453–459. https://doi.org/10.7508/pj.2017.03.010
Purschke B, Scheibelberger R, Axmann S et al (2017) Impact of substrate contamination with mycotoxins, heavy metals and pesticides on the growth performance and composition of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) for use in the feed and food value chain. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 34:1410–1420. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2017.1299946
Ramos-Elorduy J (2008) Energy supplied by edible insects from Mexico and their nutritional and ecological importance. Ecol Food Nutr 47:280–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/03670240701805074
Rehman K ur, Cai M, Xiao X et al (2017a) Cellulose decomposition and larval biomass production from the co-digestion of dairy manure and chicken manure by mini-livestock (Hermetia illucens L.). J Environ Manage 196:458–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.047
Rehman K ur, Rehman A, Cai M et al (2017b) Conversion of mixtures of dairy manure and soybean curd residue by black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens L.). J Clean Prod 154:366–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.019
Rehman K, ur, Ur Rehman R, Somroo AA et al (2019) Enhanced bioconversion of dairy and chicken manure by the interaction of exogenous bacteria and black soldier fly larvae. J Environ Manage 237:75–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.048
Rezania S, Oryani B, Park J et al (2019) Review on transesterification of non-edible sources for biodiesel production with a focus on economic aspects, fuel properties and by-product applications. Energy Convers Manag 201:112155
Rinaudo M (2006) Chitin and chitosan: properties and applications. Prog Polym Sci 31:603–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2006.06.001
Rosmiati M, Nurjanah KA, Suantika G, Putra RE (2017) Application of compost produced by bioconversion of coffee husk by black soldier fly larvae ( Hermetia Illucens ) as solid fertilizer to lettuce ( Lactuca Sativa Var. Crispa ): impact to growth. Proc Int Conf Green Technol 8:38–44
Ruhnke I, Normant C, Campbell DLM et al (2018) Impact of on-range choice feeding with black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) on flock performance, egg quality, and range use of free-range laying hens. Anim Nutr 4:452–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2018.03.005
Sarpong D, Oduro-Kwarteng S, Gyasi SF et al (2019) Biodegradation by composting of municipal organic solid waste into organic fertilizer using the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agric 8:45–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-019-0268-4
Schiavone A, Cullere M, De Marco M et al (2017a) Partial or total replacement of soybean oil by black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens L.) fat in broiler diets: effect on growth performances, feed-choice, blood traits, carcass characteristics and meat quality. Ital J Anim Sci 16:93–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2016.1249968
Schiavone A, De Marco M, Martínez S et al (2017b) Nutritional value of a partially defatted and a highly defatted black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens L.) meal for broiler chickens: apparent nutrient digestibility, apparent metabolizable energy and apparent ileal amino acid digestibility. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 8:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-017-0181-5
Schmitt B, Johansen, et al (2019) Growth and safety assessment of feed streams for black soldier fly larvae: a case study with aquaculture sludge. Animals 9:189. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9040189
Secci G, Bovera F, Nizza S et al (2018) Quality of eggs from lohmann brown classic laying hens fed black soldier fly meal as substitute for soya bean. Animal 12:2191–2197. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731117003603
Shelomi M, Wu MK, Chen SM et al (2020) Microbes associated with black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomiidae) degradation of food waste. Environ Entomol 49:405–411. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvz164
Sheppard DC, Tomberlin JK, Joyce JA et al (2002) Rearing methods for the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). J Med Entomol 39:695–698. https://doi.org/10.1603/0022-2585-39.4.695
Shumo M, Khamis FM, Tanga CM et al (2019) Influence of temperature on selected life-history traits of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) reared on two common urban organic waste streams in Kenya. Animals 9:79. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9030079
Somroo AA, ur Rehman K, Zheng L, et al (2019) Influence of Lactobacillus buchneri on soybean curd residue co-conversion by black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) for food and feedstock production. Waste Manag 86:114–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.01.022
Spranghers T, Noyez A, Schildermans K, De Clercq P (2017a) Cold hardiness of the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). J Econ Entomol 110:1501–1507. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/tox142
Spranghers T, Ottoboni M, Klootwijk C et al (2017b) Nutritional composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae reared on different organic waste substrates. J Sci Food Agric 97:2594–2600. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8081
St-Hilaire S, Sheppard C, Tomberlin JK et al (2007) Fly Prepupae as a feedstuff for rainbow trout, oncorhynchus mykiss. J World Aquac Soc 38:59–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2006.00073.x
Su CH, Nguyen HC, Bui TL, Huang DL (2019) Enzyme-assisted extraction of insect fat for biodiesel production. J Clean Prod 223:436–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.150
Supriyatna A, Manurung R, Esyanti RR (2016) Growth of black soldier larvae fed on cassava peel wastes, an agriculture waste. J Entomol Zool Stud JEZS 4:161–165
Surendra KC, Olivier R, Tomberlin JK et al (2016) Bioconversion of organic wastes into biodiesel and animal feed via insect farming. Renew Energy 98:197–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.03.022
Tingle FC, Mitchell ER, Copeland WW (1975) The soldier fly, Hermetia illucens in poultry houses in North Central Florida. J Georg Entomol Soc 10:174–179
Tomberlin JK, Adler PH, Myers HM (2009) Development of the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in relation to temperature. Environ Entomol 38:930–934. https://doi.org/10.1603/022.038.0347
Tomberlin JK, Sheppard DC (2002) Factors influencing mating and oviposition of black soldier flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in a colony. J Entomol Sci 37:345–352. https://doi.org/10.18474/0749-8004-37.4.345
Tomberlin JK, Sheppard DC (2001) Lekking behavior of the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Florida Entomol 84:729. https://doi.org/10.2307/3496413
Ushakova NA, Brodskii ES, Kovalenko AA et al (2016) Characteristics of lipid fractions of larvae of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens. Dokl Biochem Biophys 468:209–212. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1607672916030145
Üstüner T, Hasbenli A, Rozkosný R (2003) The first record of Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus, 1758) (Diptera, Stratiomyidae) from the Near East. Stud Dipterologica 10:181–185
Van Der Fels-Klerx HJ, Camenzuli L, Van Der Lee MK, Oonincx DGAB (2016) Uptake of cadmium, lead and arsenic by Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens from contaminated substrates. PLoS ONE 11:e0166186. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166186
Wang H, Rehman K, ur, Feng W, et al (2020) Physicochemical structure of chitin in the developing stages of black soldier fly. Int J Biol Macromol 149:901–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.01.293
Waśko A, Bulak P, Polak-Berecka M et al (2016) The first report of the physicochemical structure of chitin isolated from Hermetia illucens. Int J Biol Macromol 92:316–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.07.038
Wong CY, Aris MNM, Daud H et al (2020a) In-situ yeast fermentation to enhance bioconversion of coconut endosperm waste into larval biomass of hermetia illucens: statistical augmentation of larval lipid content. Sustain 12:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041558
Wong CY, Lim JW, Chong FK et al (2020b) Valorization of exo-microbial fermented coconut endosperm waste by black soldier fly larvae for simultaneous biodiesel and protein productions. Environ Res 185:109458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109458
Wong CY, Rosli SS, Uemura Y et al (2019) Potential protein and biodiesel sources from black soldier fly larvae: insights of larval harvesting instar and fermented feeding medium. Energies 12:1570. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12081570
Wu X, Cai R, Wang X et al (2020) Study on effects of black soldier fly feces on rice growth. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 450:012099. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/450/1/012099
Xiao X, Mazza L, Yu Y et al (2018) Efficient co-conversion process of chicken manure into protein feed and organic fertilizer by Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae and functional bacteria. J Environ Manage 217:668–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.03.122
Xiao Y, Geng W, Yang Y et al (2020) Study on the Difference of transformation of livestock and poultry feces by black soldier fly. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 450:012122. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/450/1/012122
Yang S, Liu Z (2014) Pilot-scale biodegradation of swine manure via Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius) for biodiesel production. Appl Energy 113:385–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.07.056
Yehuda B, Marchaim U, Glatman L et al (2011) Bioconversion of poultry and fish waste by lucilia sericata and sarcophaga carnaria larvae. Asian J Water Environ Pollut 8:69–75
Yu G, Cheng P, Chen YY et al (2011) Inoculating poultry manure with companion bacteria influences growth and development of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae. Environ Entomol 40:30–35. https://doi.org/10.1603/en10126
Zaspel JM (2016) The insects: an outline of entomology, 5th edn. John Wiley & Sons, London
Zhang J, Huang L, He J et al (2010) An artificial light source influences mating and oviposition of black soldier flies, Hermetia illucens. J Insect Sci 10:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1673/031.010.20201
Zheng L, Crippen TL, Holmes L et al (2013a) Bacteria mediate oviposition by the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.), (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Sci Rep 3:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep02563
Zheng L, Crippen TL, Singh B et al (2013b) A Survey of bacterial diversity from successive life stages of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) by using 16S rDNA pyrosequencing. J Med Entomol 50:647–658. https://doi.org/10.1603/me12199
Zheng L, Hou Y, Li W et al (2012a) Biodiesel production from rice straw and restaurant waste employing black soldier fly assisted by microbes. Energy 47:225–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.09.006
Zheng L, Li Q, Zhang J, Yu Z (2012b) Double the biodiesel yield: Rearing black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens, on solid residual fraction of restaurant waste after grease extraction for biodiesel production. Renew Energy 41:75–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2011.10.004
Zhou F, Tomberlin JK, Zheng L et al (2013) Developmental and waste reduction plasticity of three black soldier fly strains (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) raised on different livestock manures. J Med Entomol 50:1224–1230. https://doi.org/10.1603/me13021
Zurbrügg C, Dortmans B, Fadhila A et al (2018) From pilot to full scale operation of a waste-to-protein treatment facility. Detritus 1:18–22
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC), Government of India and The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) under the grant number BIRAC/GCI/0066/02/13-RTTC and Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India under Swachhta action plan (SAP), grant number ICSR/SAP/2018/SN-1. The first author of this article wants to thank the Ministry of Education, Government of India, for providing fellowship for carrying out her doctoral research work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Editorial responsibility: Lifeng Yin.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Purkayastha, D., Sarkar, S. Sustainable waste management using black soldier fly larva: a review. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19, 12701–12726 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03524-7
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03524-7