Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems

A critical need exists to investigate various renewable and solar energy technologies and examine the energy and environmental issues associated with these various technologies. The various renewable energy technologies will not be able to replace all current 102 quads (quad = 10¹⁵ BTU) of U.S. energy consumption (USCB 2007). A gross estimate of land and water resources is needed, as these resources will be required to implement the various renewable energy technologies.

In this work I outline the rational, science-based arguments that question current wisdom of replacing fossil plant fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) with fresh plant agrofuels. This 1:1 replacement is absolutely impossible for more than a few years, because of the ways the planet Earth works and maintains life. After these few years, the denuded Earth will be a different planet, hostile to human life. I argue that with the current set of objective constraints a continuous stable solution to human life cannot exist in the near-future, unless we all rapidly implement much more limited ways of using the Earth’s resources, while reducing the global populations of cars, trucks, livestock and, eventually, also humans.

Ethanol production doubled in a very short period of time in the U.S. due to a combination of natural disasters, political tensions, and much more demand globally from petroleum. Responses to this expansion will span many sectors of society and the economy. As the Midwest gears up to rapidly add new ethanol manufacturing plants, the existing regional economy must accommodate the changes. There are issues for decision makers regarding existing agricultural activities, transportation and storage, regional economic impacts, the likelihood of growth in particular areas and decline in others, and the longer term economic, social, and environmental sustainability. Many of these issues will have to be considered and dealt with in a simultaneous fashion in a relatively short period of time. This chapter investigates sets of structural, industrial, and regional consequences associated with ethanol plant development in the Midwest, primarily, and in the nation, secondarily. The first section untangles the rhetoric of local and regional economic impact claims about biofuels. The second section describes the economic gains and offsets that may accrue to farmers, livestock feeding, and other agri-businesses as production of ethanol and byproducts increase. The last section discusses the near and longer term growth prospects for rural areas in the Midwest and the nation as they relate to biofuels production.

Ethanol, or ethyl alcohol used for motor fuel, has long been used as a transport fuel. In recent years, however, it has been promoted as a means to pursue a multitude of public policy goals: reduce petroleum imports; improve vehicle emissions and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases; and stimulate rural development. Annual production of ethanol for fuel in the United States has trebled since 1999 and is expected to reach almost 7 billion gallons in 2007. This growth in production has been accompanied by billions of dollars of investment in transport and distribution infrastructure. Market factors, such as rising prices for petroleum products and state bans on methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), a blending agent for which ethanol is one of the few readily available substitutes, drove some of this increase. But the main driving factor has been government support, provided at every point in the supply chain and from the federal to the local level. This chapter reviews the major policy developments affecting the fuel-ethanol industry of the United States since the late 1970s, quantifies their value to the industry, and evaluates the efficacy of ethanol subsidization in achieving greenhouse gas reduction goals. We conclude that not only is total support for ethanol already substantial — $5.8–7.0 billion in 2006 — and set to rise quickly, even under existing policy settings, but its cost effectiveness is low, especially as a means to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The issues surrounding energy are far more important, complex and pervasive than normally considered from the perspective of conventional economics, and they will be extremely resistant to market-based, or possibly any other, resolution. We live in an era completely dominated by readily available and cheap petroleum. This cheap petroleum is finite and currently there are no substitutes with the quality and quantity required. Of particular importance to society’s past and future is that depletion is overtaking technology in many ways, so that the enormous wealth made possible by cheap petroleum is very unlikely to continue very far into the future. What this means principally is that investments will increasingly have to be made into simply getting the energy that today we take for granted, the net economic effect being the gradual squeezing out of discretionary investments and consumption. While there are certainly partial “supply-side” solutions to these issues, principally through a focus on certain types of solar power, the magnitude of the problem will be enormous because of the scale required, the declining net energy supplies available for investment and the relatively low net energy yields of the alternatives. Given that this issue is likely to be far more immediate, and perhaps more important, than even the serious issue of global warming it is remarkable how little attention we have paid to understanding it or its consequences.

Wind turbines have a potential benefit insofar as they have a power density that matches coal, at least according to one measure. Set against this is the uncontrollable nature of their output. This means that without a suitable method of storing output, wind power can satisfy only about 10{%} of total energy demand. This limit applies to all uncontrollables collectively, with the slight exception that in places using a lot of air conditioning, photovoltaics could be used to help satisfy peak electrical demands.

The basic problem of uncontrollables would resolve if a suitable method of storing electricity could be found. The severe limitations of hydro, hydrogen storage, and vanadium batteries are explored. A storage system that would be both efficient and significant in size, at least in the USA, is Compress Air Energy Storage (CAES), but more experience of this is needed before it can be properly assessed.

Assessment becomes even more difficult when looking ahead to the time when all fossil fuels are scarce, because at present there appears to be no satisfactory solution to the ‘liquid’ fuel problem, yet the process of manufacturing, installing, and maintaining wind turbines and the associated transmission lines would be very difficult without the help of liquid fossil fuels. In the USA, any likely gain from the use of wind power is likely to be overtaken by the present population growth of at least 1.4% a year.

Concerns about the environmental impact of fossil fuels – as well as the possibility that fossil fuel production may soon fall short of demand~– have spurred a search for renewable alternative fuels. Distillates, the class of fossil fuels which includes diesel and fuel oil, account for a significant fraction of worldwide fossil fuel demand. Renewable distillates may be produced via several different technologies and from a wide variety of raw materials. Renewable distillates may be categorized as biodiesel, which is a mono-alkyl ester and not a hydrocarbon, or ‘green diesel’, which is a renewable hydrocarbon diesel produced via either hydrotreating or biomass to liquids (BTL) technology. There are, however, important ecological and economic tradeoffs to consider. While the expansion of renewable diesel production may provide additional sources of income for farmers in tropical regions, it also provides economic incentive for clearing tropical forests and negatively impacting biodiversity. Also, many of the raw materials used to produce renewable diesel are edible, or compete with arable land used to grow food. This creates potential conflicts over the use of biomass for food or for fuel. In contrast to first-generation renewable diesel technologies which utilize primarily edible oils, BTL technology can utilize any type of biomass for diesel production. However, high capital costs have thus far hampered development of BTL technology.

This chapter is divided into three parts. Part 1 deals with theoretical issues reflecting systemic problems in energy analysis: (i) when dealing with complex dissipative systems no quantitative assessment of output/input energy ratio can be substantive; (ii) metabolic systems define “on their own”, what should be considered as useful work, converters, energy carriers, and primary energy sources; (iii) the well known trade-off between “power” (the pace of the throughput) and “efficiency” (the value of the output/input ratio). This makes it impossible to use just one number (an output/input ratio) for the analysis of complex metabolic systems. Part 2 introduces basic concepts related to Bioeconomics: (i) the rationale associated with the concept of EROI; (ii) the conceptual definition of a minimum threshold of energy throughput, determined by a combination of biophysical and socio-economic constraints. These two points entail that the energy sector of developed countries must be able to generate a huge net supply of energy carriers per hour of work and per ha of colonized land. Part 3 uses an integrated system of accounting (MuSIASEM approach) to check the viability of agro-biofuels. The “heart transplant” metaphor is proposed to check the feasibility and desirability of alternative energy sources using benchmark values: (i) what is expected according to societal characteristics; and (ii) what is supplied according to the energy system used to supply energy carriers. Finally, a section of conclusions tries to explain the widespread hoax of agro-biofuels in developed countries.

Ethanol fuel has been considered lately an efficient option for reducing greenhouse gases emissions. Brazil has now more than 30 years of experience with large-scale ethanol production. With sugarcane as feedstock, Brazilian ethanol has some advantages in terms of energy and CO₂ balances. The use of bagasse for energy generation contributes to lower greenhouse gases emissions. Although, when compared with gasoline, the use of sugarcane ethanol does imply in reduction of GHG emissions, Brazilian contribution to emission reductions could be much more significant, if more efforts were directed for reduction of Amazon deforestation. The trend however is to encourage ethanol production

A methodology is presented for standardizing Biomass Fuel Cycle (BFC) analysis and evaluation. The Biomass Fuel Cycle Methodology (BFCM) enables eliminating disparities, minimizing differences, and clearly quantifying variations. Standardized templates, modular staging, and normalized analysis formulations are used to disposition technologies, facilities, activities, boundaries, and parameters. The methodology enables presentation of quantification and characterization information in a straightforward standard format applicable across a broad range of BFC’s. BFC literature data is used to illustrate the flexibility, clarity, and diversity of the methodology. The types of insights to be gained concerning the limitations of BFC treatments (boundary shortcomings, energy uncertainties, analysis constraints) are discussed.

During the past century, inexpensive fuels and an outpouring of new science and resultant technology have facilitated rapid growth and maintenance of human populations, infrastructures, and transportation. Developed countries are critically dependent on the liquid fuels required by present day transportation of goods and services and by agriculture and are dependent on various fuels for generation of electricity. Authorities and the media present physical growth as an economic and social need, but consumption and its growth ultimately cause declining availability and increasing price of fuels and energy. Increased burning of carbon fuels with increase of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere is the principal cause of increasing global warming, which is well-measured and a probable source of future disruption of world ecosystems.

Regrettably for humanity, the power of new technologies has not yet been accompanied by vitally needed political and cultural developments in the U.S. and in many other countries. The political system in the U.S. seems unable to mitigate processes that contribute to global warming nor adequately address declining supplies of liquid fuels, nor does it discourage social pressures for continued physical growth.

Search for alternative sources of liquid fuels for the transportation sector in developed countries and in the United States in particular produce strong connections among energy supply, food supply, and global warming. Various current U.S. programs are examined and none appear effective toward prevention of a future disaster in human terms. The social organism is not ready now to sacrifice for future gain or even for sustainability.

Standard economic analysis does not accurately account for the physical depletion of a resource due to its reliance on fiat currency as a metric. Net energy analysis, particularly Energy Return on Energy Investment, can measure the biophysical properties of a resources progression over time. There has been sporadic and disparate use of net energy statistics over the past several decades. Some analyses are inclusive in treatment of inputs and outputs while others are very narrow, leading to difficulty of accurate comparisons in policy discussions. This chapter attempts to place these analyses in a common framework that includes both energy and non-energy inputs, environmental externalities, and non-energy co-products. We also assess how Liebig’s Law of the minimum may require energy analysts to utilize multi-criteria analysis techniques when energy may not be the sole limiting variable.

In this chapter the history and origin of the Brazilian program for bioethanol production (ProÁlcool) from sugarcane (Saccharum sp.) are described. Sugarcane today covers approximately 7 Mha, with 357 operating cane mills/ distilleries. The mean cane yield is 76.6 Mg ha^-1 and almost half of the national production is dedicated to ethanol production, the remainder to sugar and other comestibles. The mean ethanol yield is 6280 L ha^-1. An evaluation of the environmental impact of this program is reported, with especial emphasis on a detailed and transparent assessment of the energy balance and greenhouse gas (CO₂, N₂O, CH₄) emissions. It was estimated that the energy balance (the ratio of total energy in the biofuel to fossil energy invested in its manufacture) was approximately 9.0, and the use of ethanol to fuel the average Brazilian car powered by a FlexFuel motor would incur an economy of 73% in greenhouse gas emissions per km travelled compared to the Brazilian gasohol. Other aspects of the environmental impact are not so positive. Air pollution due to pre-harvest burning of cane can have serious effects on children and elderly people when conditions are especially dry. However, cane burning is gradually being phased out with the introduction of mechanised green-cane harvesting. Water pollution was a serious problem early in the program but the return of distillery waste (vinasse) and other effluents to the field have now virtually eliminated this problem. Soil erosion can be severe on sloping land on susceptible soils but with the introduction of no-till techniques and green-cane harvesting the situation is slowly improving. The distribution of the sugar cane industry shows that reserves of biodiversity such as Amazônia are not threatened by the expansion of the program and while there may be no great advantages of the program for rural poor, the idea that it will create food shortages is belied by the huge area of Brazil compared to the area of cane planted. Working conditions for the cane cutters are severe, almost inhuman, but there is no shortage of men (and women) to perform this task as wages and employment benefits are considerably more favourable than for the majority of rural workers. The future will bring expansion of the industry with increased efficiency, more mechanisation of the harvest, lower environmental impact along with a reduction in the number of unskilled workers employed and an increase in wages for the more skilled. This biofuel program will not only be of considerable economic and environmental benefit to Brazil, but also will play a small but significant global role in the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from motor vehicles to the atmosphere of this planet.

This analysis employs the most recent scientific data for the U.S. and for Brazil sugarcane production and the fermentation/distillation. These two countries were selected because they are the two largest countries in the world producing ethanol. All current fossil energy inputs used in the entire process of producing ethanol from sugarcane were included to determine the entire energy cost for ethanol production. Additional costs to consumers, including federal and state subsidies, plus costs of environmental pollution and/or degradation associated with the entire production system are discussed. The economic and the broad human food supply issues are evaluated. In addition, other studies are compared.

In this analysis, the most recent scientific data for corn, switchgrass, and wood, for fermentation/distillation were used. All current fossil energy inputs used in corn production and for the fermentation/distillation were included to determine the entire energy cost of ethanol production. Additional costs to consumers include federal and state subsidies, plus costs associated with environmental pollution and/or degradation that occur during the entire production process. In addition, an investigation was made concerning the conversion of soybeans into biodiesel fuel.

Unprecedented opportunities for biofuel development are occurring as a result of increasing energy security concerns and the need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This chapter analyzes the potential of growing energy crops for thermal energy applications, making a case-study comparison of bioheat, biogas and liquid biofuel production from energy crops in Ontario. Switchgrass pellets for bioheat and corn silage biogas were the most efficient strategies found for displacing imported fossil fuels, producing 142 and 123 GJ/ha respectively of net energy gain. Corn ethanol, soybean biodiesel and switchgrass cellulosic ethanol produced net energy gains of 16, 11 and 53 GJ/ha, respectively. Bioheat also proved the most efficient means to reduce GHG emissions. Switchgrass pellets were found to offset 86–91% of emissions compared with using coal, heating oil, natural gas or liquid natural gas (LNG). Each hectare of land used for production of switchgrass pellets could offset 7.6–13.1 tonnes of CO₂ annually. In contrast, soybean biodiesel, corn ethanol and switchgrass cellulosic ethanol could offset 0.9, 1.5 and 5.2 tonnes of CO₂/ha_, respectively.

In the last decades biofuels have been regarded as an important source of renewable energy and at the same time as an option to curb greenhouse gas emissions. This is based on a number of assumptions that, on a close look, may be misleading, such as the supposed great energy efficiency of biofuels production. Large scale biofuels production may, on the contrary, have dramatic effects on agriculture sustainability and food security. In this chapter we explore the energy efficiency of organic farming in comparison to conventional agriculture, as well as the possible benefits of organic management in term of Green House Gasses mitigation.

Organic agriculture (along with other low inputs agriculture practices) results in less energy demand compared to intensive agriculture and could represent a mean to improve energy savings and CO2 abatement if adopted on a large scale. At the same time it can provide a number of important environmental and social services such as: preserving and improving soil quality, increasing carbon sink, minimizing water use, preserving biodiversity, halting the use of harmful chemicals so guaranteeing healthy food to consumers. We claim that more work should be done in term of research and investments to explore the potential of organic farming for reducing environmental impact of agricultural practices. However, the implications for the socio-economic system of a reduced productivity should be considered and suitable agricultural policies analysed.

The chapter is organised as follows: Section (17.1) provides the reader with a definition of organic agriculture (and sustainable agriculture) and a brief history of the organic movement in order to help the reader to better understand what is presented later on; Section (17.2) reviews a number of studies on energy efficiency in organic and conventional agriculture; Section (17.3) compares CO² emissions from organic and conventional managed farming systems; Section (17.4) analyses the possible use of agricultural “waste” to produce cellulosic ethanol; Section (17.5) provides some comments concerning the possible production of biofuels from organically grown crops; Section (17.6) concludes the chapter presenting a summary of the review.

We present and critically evaluate in this paper biofuel production options in Italy, in order to provide the reader with the order of magnitudes of the performance indicators involved. Also, we discuss biofuel viability and desirability at the European level, according to the recent EU regulations and energy policy decisions.

Fuels from biomass are most often proposed as substitutes for fossil fuels, in order to meet present and future shortages. Although the scientific literature on biofuel production techniques is abundant, comprehensive evaluations of large-scale biofuel production as a response to fossil energy depletion are few and controversial. The complexity of the assessments involved and the ideological biases in the research of both opponents and proponents of biofuel production make it difficult to weigh the contrasting information found in the literature. Moreover, the dubious validity of extrapolating results obtained at the level of an individual biofuel plant or farm to entire societies or ecosystems has rarely been addressed explicitly. After questioning the feasibility of a large-scale biofuels option based upon yields from case studies, we explore what are the constraints that affect the option even in the case of improved production performance.

Further laboratory and field research is needed for the algae and oil theoretical system. Claims based on research dating over three decades have been made, yet none of the projected algae and oil yields have been achieved. Harvesting the algae from tanks and separating the oil from the algae, are difficult and energy intensive processes.