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1990 | Buch

Motion Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

Biomechanics

Motion, Flow, Stress, and Growth

verfasst von: Y. C. Fung

Verlag: Springer New York

Enthalten in: Professional Book Archive

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Über dieses Buch

Biomechanics aims to explain the mechanics oflife and living. From molecules to organisms, everything must obey the laws of mechanics. Clarification of mechanics clarifies many things. Biomechanics helps us to appreciate life. It sensitizes us to observe nature. It is a tool for design and invention of devices to improve the quality of life. It is a useful tool, a simple tool, a valuable tool, an unavoidable tool. It is a necessary part of biology and engineering. The method of biomechanics is the method of engineering, which consists of observation, experimentation, theorization, validation, and application. To understand any object, we must know its geometry and materials of construc­ tion, the mechanical properties of the materials involved, the governing natural laws, the mathematical formulation of specific problems and their solutions, and the results of validation. Once understood, one goes on to develop applications. In my plan to present an outline of biomechanics, I followed the engineering approach and used three volumes. In the first volume, Biomechanics: Mechanical Properties of Living Tissues, the geometrical struc­ ture and the rheological properties of various materials, tissues, and organs are presented. In the second volume, Biodynamics: Circulation, the physiology of blood circulation is analyzed by the engineering method.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Motion
Abstract
To live is to move. In this book we consider locomotion, motion of organs, motion of fluids around the body as in swimming and flying, and motion of fluids inside the body, such as gas in respiration, blood in circulation, body fluids in tissues. We then go on to consider stresses in the body, the effect of stresses on the physiological function of the organs, the pathological development when stresses are either too large or too small, and biological reaction to stresses in the phenomenon of growth and change.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 2. Segmental Movement and Vibrations
Abstract
In the preceding chapter we described motion in the Newtonian form. An animal is considered to be a collection of particles, and particle movement is expressed in terms of displacement, velocity, acceleration, external forces, and forces of interaction between particles. In application to biomechanics, one finds that the terms F IJ in Eq. (1.1:7), that describe the mutual interaction between particles, are the most troublesome. For example, in the analysis of human locomotion, we must know the forces in all the muscles of the legs. But the human musculoskeletal system is highly redundant and the determination of the forces in the muscles is one of the most difficult problems in biomechanics (see Sec. 2.8 infra). Hence there is a need for a method that does not require such detailed information. The method of Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813) offers such an alternative in terms of work and energy. If the kinetic and potential energies are known as functions of the generalized coordinates and their derivatives with respect to time, and if the work done by the external forces can be computed when a generalized coordinate changes, then the equations of motion can be written down.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 3. External Flow: Fluid Dynamic Forces Acting on Moving Bodies
Abstract
When humans exercise, birds fly, fish swim, animals run, and trees sway, we want to know the forces they experience. The calculation of the forces they experience from the surrounding fluid is the realm of fluid dynamics. In this chapter we present the classical theory. In the next chapter we discuss flying and swimming in nature.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 4. Flying and Swimming
Abstract
Locomotion is, of course, an extremely interesting subject. People are forever fascinated by sports. We cheer gold medal winners. How athletes are trained is certainly a legitimate question for biomechanics. There are people who suffer impairments in locomotion and others who try to help them recover or overcome their handicaps. These people, the sports lovers, educators, patients, orthopedic surgeons, engineers, physical therapists, nurses, prosthesis manufacturers, and hospital managers, will benefit from a good understanding of the biomechanics of locomotion. Then there is the world of animals around us. We see animals walking and crawling on land, flying in air, and swimming in fluid. From man and mice to birds, fishes, and sperms, there is a tremendous variety of questions one may wish to ask about locomotion.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 5. Blood Flow in Heart, Lung, Arteries, and Veins
Abstract
The next five chapters are concerned with flow inside the bodies of man and animals. By internal flow of blood, water, and gases, the cells of the body obtain water, oxygen, and nutrients. To understand the health and disease of these organisms, it is necessary to know the mechanics of internal flow.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 6. Micro- and Macrocirculation
Abstract
In physiology, capillary blood flow is identified with microcirculation. Flow in small blood vessels supplying and draining the capillaries, the arterioles and venules, respectively, are also included in microcirculation, but the question of how many orders are to be included in microcirculation is sometimes debated, because different organs seem to demand different answers. From fluid mechanical point of view, the distinction between micro and macro circulation can be based on the Reynolds number, VD/v, and Womersley number, \(\left( {D/2} \right)\sqrt {\omega /\nu } \) (Sec. 5.16), where V represents the mean velocity of flow in the vessel, D is the vessel diameter, v is the kinematic viscosity of the blood, co is the circular frequency of oscillation of the blood velocity fluctuations. If the Reynolds number and Womersley numbers are both much smaller than 1, then the inertial force can be ignored, and the flow is said to be microcirculation. If both numbers are much greater than 1, then the fluid viscosity can be ignored, and the flow is said to be macrocirculation. In between these limits the fluid mechanical equations are harder to solve, and it is immaterial whether you classify them as micro or macro circulation.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 7. Respiratory Gas Flow
Abstract
This chapter is focused on the flow of gas into and out of the mammalian lung. We study the airway tree shown in Fig. 5.2:2. In the airway, the mixing of gases is given particular attention. In alveoli, the exchange of O2 and CO2 between alveolar gas and red blood cells is discussed. The effectiveness of this exchange depends on the matching of ventilation and circulation.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 8. Basic Transport Equations According to Thermodynamics, Molecular Diffusion, Mechanisms in Membranes, and Multiphasic Structure
Abstract
Now we shall consider the movement of water and other fluids in our bodies, especially the exchange of fluid between blood and the extravascular tissues. Red blood cells cannot leave the blood vessel; but water, ions, and some white blood cells can. The fluid in the extravascular space moves and exchanges matter with the cells in the body. The ionic composition of the fluid in the cells is quite different from that in the extracellular space. Extracellular fluid is rich in Na+, Cl−, HCO 3 − , whereas the intracellular fluid is rich in K+ Mg++, phosphates, proteins, and organic phosphates. The composition of blood plasma is fairly similar to that of the extravascular fluid, except that the plasma has some 14 mEq/L of proteins while extracellular fluid has essentially none. See Table 8.1:1. To talk about mass transport in the body we must explain how this difference in composition comes about.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 9. Mass Transport in Capillaries, Tissues, Interstitial Space, Lymphatics, Indicator Dilution Method, and Peristalsis
Abstract
In this chapter some applications of the basic equations derived in Chap. 8 are demonstrated. Flow across the walls of the capillary and lymph vessels is discussed in Sec. 9.2. Methods for measuring the permeability of vessel walls are presented in Sec. 9.3. A model of oxygen delivery and consumption in tissues is given in Sec. 9.4. Fluid movement in interstitial space is discussed in Sec. 9.5.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 10. Description of Internal Deformation and Forces
Abstract
Since living organs normally go through finite deformation, a bioengineer should know the subject of finite deformation analysis. This subject is not difficult, but it usually lies outside the common engineering curriculum. It is not simple, and considerable patience is needed to master it. In the following, a presentation of its most important aspects is given in easy to understand physical terms. There are many books and papers on this subject (see References). Fung (1965) is believed to be one of the easiest to read.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 11. Stress, Strain, and Stability of Organs
Abstract
In this chapter we discuss the stress and strain in organs. The significance of the subject is established, the methods of approach are summarized, highlights on a few organs are surveyed, and then we focus on some topics which are important from the point of view of mechanics, such as the zero-stress state, the connection between micro- and macromechanics, the effect of surface tension, the incremental laws, the interaction between neighboring organs, the stability of some structures, and the behavior of some structures that become unstable and collapsed.
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 12. Strength, Trauma, and Tolerance
Abstract
There are many reasons why the study of the strength of biological tissues and organs is important. In the first place any living organism must be strong enough to withstand the loads imposed on it by its environment and its activities. The history of evolution is a history of cells forming more efficient organizations for competition and survival. The shapes of plants and animals depend largely on the structural materials these organisms can manufacture and organize into structures of adequate strength. See Currey (1970) and Wainwright et al. (1976).
Y. C. Fung
Chapter 13. Biomechanical Aspects of Growth and Tissue Engineering
Abstract
All parents want healthy children. Everyone wants a strong and handsome body. We all believe that a proper level of exercise, i.e. a proper level of stress and strain, is necessary for health. This is common sense. If we can turn this common sense into a precise knowledge about stress and growth, then it will enlighten biology in general, help surgeons to engineer healing, throw light on physical education, sports techniques, health care, rehabilitation.
Y. C. Fung
Backmatter
Metadaten
Titel
Biomechanics
verfasst von
Y. C. Fung
Copyright-Jahr
1990
Verlag
Springer New York
Electronic ISBN
978-1-4419-6856-2
Print ISBN
978-1-4757-5913-6
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6856-2