Skip to main content

A Dual Coding Perspective on Encoding Processes

  • Chapter
Book cover Imagery and Related Mnemonic Processes

Abstract

Dual coding theory emerged several decades ago when a systematic research program was undertaken to examine the role of imagery in human cognition and, if warranted, to restore imagery to its “rightful place” alongside the language processes that then dominated the interests of cognitive psychologists. Early research efforts at the University of Western Ontario demonstrated the contribution of nonverbal processes to human cognitive behavior, even when that behavior involved language (e.g., Paivio, 1963, 1965, 1966; Paivio & Yarmey, 1965; Paivio & Yuille, 1966). We still find useful this work and that of other early investigators, summarized in Paivio (1971/1979), despite the considerable developments that have occurred in the intervening years as more and more scholars have applied their scientific skills to the study of imagery. Paivio (1986) provides a dual coding perspective on some of this recent work. These earlier sources give a more complete description of dual coding theory, which provides for us a useful organization of many cognitive phenomena.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Allen, G. L., & Kirasic, K. C. (1985). Effects of the cognitive organization of route knowledge on judgments of macrospatial distance. Memory & Cognition, 13, 218–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, M. A. (1917). An investigation into the rate of mental association. The Journal of Educational Psychology, 8 97–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, R. C., & Ortony, A. (1975). On putting apples into bottles—a problem in polysemy. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 167–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archer, E. J. (1960). A re-evaluation of the meaningfulness of all possible CVC trigrams. Psychological Monographs, 74(10, Whole No. 497).

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, R. C., & Raugh, M. R. (1975). An application of the mnemonic keyword method to the acquisition of a Russian vocabulary. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104, 126–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barsalou, L. W., & Sewell, D. R. (1985). Contrasting the representation of scripts and categories. Journal of Memory and Language, 24, 646–665.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartram, D. J. (1974). The role of visual and semantic codes in object naming. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 325–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Battig, W. F., & Montague, W. E. (1969). Category norms for verbal items in 56 categories: A replication and extension of the Connecticut category norms. Journal of Experimental Psychology Monograph, 80, 1–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Begg, I. (1973). Imagery and integration in the recall of words. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 27, 159–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellezza, F. S., & Poplawsky, A. J. (1974). The function of one-word mediators in the recall of word pairs. Memory & Cognition, 2, 447–452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bersted, C. T. (1983). Memory scanning of described images and undescribed images: Hemispheric differences. Memory & Cognition, 11, 129–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, I., & Tsao, Y. (1979). On processing Chinese ideographs and English words: Some implications from Stroop-test results. Cognitive Psychology, 11, 125–132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borges, M. A., & Mandler, G. (1972). Effect of within-category spacing on free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 92, 207–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bousfield, W. A. (1953). The occurrence of clustering in recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology, 49, 229–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower, G. H., Black, J. B., & Turner, T. J. (1979). Scripts in memory for text. Cognitive Psychology, 11, 177–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bregman, A. S. (1977). Perception and behavior as compositions of ideals. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 250–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broverman, D. M. (1960). Cognitive style and intra-individual variation in abilities. Journal of Personality, 28, 240–256.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. (1915). Practice in associating color-names with colors. Psychological Review, 22, 45–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bucci, W. (1984). Linking words and things: Basic processes and individual variation. Cognition, 17, 137–153.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bugelski, B. R. (1968). Images as mediators in one-trial paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 77, 328–334.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bugelski, B. R. (1970). Words and things and images. American Psychologist, 25, 1002–1012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bugelski, B. R., Kidd, E., & Segman, J. (1968). Image as a mediator in one-trial paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76, 69–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butterfield, G. B., & Butterfield, E. C. (1977). Lexical codability and age. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 113–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buzan, T. (1974). Use your head. London: BBC Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carmichael, L., Hogan, H. P., & Walter, A. A. (1932). An experimental study of the effect of language on the reproduction of visually perceived form. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 15, 73–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, J. B., & White, M. N. (1973). Word frequency and age of acquisition as determiners of picture-naming latency. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25, 85–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, J. M. (1886a). The time it takes to see and name objects. Mind, 11, 63–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, J. M. (1886b). The time taken up by cerebral operations. Mind, 11, 220–242, 377–392, 524–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, J. M. (1887). Experiments on the association of ideas. Mind, 72, 68–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, J. M. (1889). Mental association investigated by experiment. Mind, 14, 230–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, J. M. (1895). Measurements on the accuracy of recollection. Science, 2, 761–766.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, E. B. (1963). The association hierarchy as an indicator of extraexperimental interference. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 417–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, E. B. (1964). Verbal concept learning as a function of instructions and dominance level. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 213–214.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969). Retrieval time from semantic memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 240–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colman, E, & Paivio, A. (1970). Pupillary dilation and mediation processes during paired-associate learning. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 24, 261–270.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, R. (1971). The chronology of the development of covert speech in children. Developmental Psychology, 5, 398–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671–684.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtis, L. E., Siegel, A. W., & Furlong, N. E. (1981). Developmental differences in cognitive mapping: Configurational knowledge of familiar large-scale environments. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 31, 456–469.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Danks, J. H. (1972). Associative responses to novel figures. Psychonomic Monograph Supplements, 4, 319–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dansereau, D. F., Collins, K. W., McDonald, B. A., Holley, C. D., Garland, J., Diekhoff, G., & Evans, S. H. (1979). Development and evaluation of a learning strategy training program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 64–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, J. C., & Bellezza, F. S. (1983). The relation between visual imagery mediators and recall. Memory & Cognition, 11, 251–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deese, J. (1959). Influence of inter-item associative strength upon immediate free recall. Psychological Reports, 5, 305–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, H. C. (1968). Transfer of stimulus predifferentiation to shape recognition and identification learning: Role of properties of verbal labels. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 78, 401–409.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, H. C., & Homan, L. E. (1968). Implicit verbal responses and the transfer of stimulus predifferentiation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76, 486–489.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, H. C., & Muller, D. G. (1964). Transfer in perceptual learning following stimulus predifferentiation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 388–395.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, H. C., Muller, D. G., & Tosti, D. T. (1966). Stimulus meaning and complexity as factors in the transfer of stimulus predifferentiation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71, 629–633.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ernest, C. H., & Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal associative latencies as a function of imagery ability. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 25, 83–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farah, M. J., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1981). Structure and strategy in image generation. Cognitive Science, 4, 371–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H., & Johnson, B. A. (1961). Meaning and meaning similarity: III. Latency and number of similarities as predictors of judged similarity in meaning. The Journal of General Psychology, 64, 337–348.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H., & Wellman, H. M. (1977). Metamemory. In R. V. Kail & J. W. Hagen (Eds.), Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition (pp. 3–33). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley, J. P., & MacMillan, Z. L. (1943). Mediated generalization and the interpretation of verbal behavior: V. “Free association” as related to differences in professional training. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 299–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, P. W. (1970). Patterns of stability and change in behaviors of free association. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 30–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraisse, P. (1960). Recognition time measured by verbal reaction to figures and words. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 11, 204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraisse, P. (1968). Motor and verbal reaction times to words and drawings. Psychonomic Science, 12, 235–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, G. L. (1929). An experimental study of the perception of objects. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12, 341–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giannadrea, V. (1971). Latency of imagery to word stimuli as a function of concreteness and abstractness and increasing phrase length. Unpublished undergraduate paper, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, J. J. (1929). The reproduction of visually perceived forms. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12, 1–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldston, D. B., Hinrichs, J. V., & Richman, C. L. (1985). Subjects’ expectations, individual variability, and the scanning of mental images. Memory & Cognition, 13, 365–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J. H., & Jenkins, J. J. (1964). Studies in the psychological correlates of the sound system of American English. Word, 20, 157–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gruber, H. E., Kulkin, A., & Schwartz, P. (1965, April). The effect of exposure time on mnemonic processing in paired associate learning. Paper presented at the Eastern Psychological Association meeting, Atlantic City.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gumenik, W. E. (1979). The advantage of specific terms over general terms as cues for sentence recall: Instantiation or retrieval? Memory & Cognition, 7, 240–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heim, J. (1973). A comment on R. C. Johnson: “Reanalysis of ‘Meaningfulness and verbal learning.’” Psychological Review, 80, 235–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirtle, S. C., & Jonides, J. (1985). Evidence of hierarchies in cognitive maps. Memory & Cognition, 13, 208–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hochberg, J., & Brooks, V. (1962). Pictorial recognition as an unlearned ability: A study of one child’s performance. American Journal of Psychology, 75, 624–628.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, J., Denis, M., & Ziessler, M. (1983). Figurative features and the construction of visual images. Psychological Research, 45, 39–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holley, C. D., & Dansereau, D. F. (Eds.). (1984). Spatial learning strategies: Techniques, applications, and related issues. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollingworth, H. L. (1915). Articulation and association. The Journal of Educational Psychology, 6, 99–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howell, D. C. (1970). Free association reliability as a function of response strength. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 85 431–433.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, D., & Osgood, C. E. (1954). On the combination of associative probabilities in linguistic contexts. American Journal of Psychology, 67, 241–258.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hudson, R. L. (1968). Category clustering as a function of level of information and number of stimulus presentations. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 7, 1106–1108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hull, C. L., & Lugoff, L. S. (1921). Complex signs in diagnostic free association. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 4, 111–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isgur, J. (1975). Establishing letter-sound associations by an object-imaging-projection method. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8, 16–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janssen, W. (1976). On the nature of the mental image. Soesterberg, The Netherlands: Institute for Perception.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, J. J. (1966). Meaningfulness and concepts; concepts and meaningfulness. In H. J. Klausmeir & C. W. Harris (Eds.), Analysis of concept learning (pp. 65–79). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, J. J. (1985). Nonsense syllables: Comprehending the “almost incomprehensible variation.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 455–460.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, J. J., & Russell, W. A. (1952). Associative clustering during recall. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 818–821.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. C. (1962). Reanalysis of “Meaningfulness and verbal learning.” Psychological Review, 69, 233–238.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. C. (1964). Latency and association value as predictors of rate of verbal learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 3, 77–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judson, A. J., Cofer, C. N., & Gelfand, S. (1956). Reasoning as an associative process: II. “Direction” in problem solving as a function of prior reinforcement of relevant responses. Psychological Reports, 2, 501–507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahl, H. B., Herman, J. F., & Klein, C. A. (1984). Distance distortions in children’s cognitive maps: An examination of the information storage model. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 38, 134–146.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, M. (1985). An alternative theoretical vocabulary for schema research. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kammann, R. (1968). Associability: A study of the properties of associative ratings and the role of association in word-word learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology Monograph, 78, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, A. N. (1983). Dominance and typicality norms for properties: Convergent and discriminant validity. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 15, 29–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiess, H. O. (1968). Effects of natural language mediators on short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 77, 7–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiess, H. O., & Montague, W. E. (1965). Natural language mediators in paired associate learning. Psychonomic Science, 3, 549–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1973). Scanning visual images: Some structural implications. Perception & Psychophysics, 14, 90–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosslyn, S. M. (1980). Image and mind Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosslyn, S. M., Ball, T. M., & Reiser, B. J. (1978). Visual images preserve metric spatial information: Evidence from studies of image scanning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 47–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, W. F. C. (1934). The relative difficulty of nonsense syllables. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 17, 145–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurtz, K. H., & Hovland, C. I. (1953). The effect of verbalization during observation of stimulus objects upon accuracy of recognition and recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45, 157–164.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lachman, R. (1973). Uncertainty effects on time to access the internal lexicon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 99, 199–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laubach, F. C., Kirk, E. M., & Laubach, R. S. (1971). The new streamlined English series: Teacher’s manual. Syracuse, NY: New Readers Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ley, R., & Locascio, D. (1970). Associative reaction time and meaningfulness of CVCVC response terms in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 83, 445–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ligon, E. M. (1932). A genetic study of color naming and word reading. American Journal of Psychology, 44, 103–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Long, G. M., & Wurst, S. A. (1984). Complexity effects on reaction-time measures of visual persistence: Evidence for peripheral and central contributions. American Journal of Psychology, 97, 537–561.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lund, E H. (1927). The role of practice in speed of association. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 10, 424–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandler, J. M., & Murphy, C. M. (1983). Subjective judgments of script structure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 534–543.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandler, J. M., & Parker, R. E. (1976). Memory for descriptive and spatial information in complex pictures. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2, 38–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marschark, M., & Paivio, A. (1977). Integrative processing of concrete and abstract sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 217–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNamara, T. P., Ratcliff, R., & McKoon, G. (1984). The mental representation of knowledge acquired from maps. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10, 723–732.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, D. E., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971). Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: Evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90, 227–234.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milgram, S., & Jodelet, D. (1976). Psychological maps of Paris. In H. M. Proshansky, W. H. Ittelson, & L. G. Rivlin (Eds.), Environmental psychology: People and their physical settings (2nd ed.) (pp. 104–124). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, S. (1970). Prediction of mediated paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 86, 131–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moar, I., & Bower, G. H. (1983). Inconsistency in spatial knowledge. Memory & Cognition, 11 107–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montague, W. E., Adams, J. A., & Kiess, H. O. (1966). Forgetting and natural language mediation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 72, 829–833.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, T. V. (1915). The temporal relations of meaning and imagery. Psychological Review, 22, 177–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, J. (1969). Interaction of information in word recognition. Psychological Review, 76, 165–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, J. (1979). Facilitation in word recognition: Experiments causing change in the logogen model. In P. A. Kolers, M. Wrolstead, & H. Bouma (Eds.), Processing of visible language (Vol. I) (pp. 259–268). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, D. J. (1978). Introduction to Albert Thumb and Karl Marbe: Experimentell untersuchungen uberdie psychologischen grundlagen der sprachlichen analogiebildung (new ed.) (pp. xi-1xiii). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, D. J. (1982). Rated associability and episodic memory. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 36, 420–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, K. (1972). The relation of form recognition to concept development. Child Development, 43, 67–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, K. (1977). The syntagmatic-paradigmatic shift revisited: A review of research and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 93–116.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oldfield, R. C., & Wingfield, A. (1964). The time it takes to name an object. Nature (London), 202, 1031–1032.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oldfield, R. C., & Wingfield, A. (1965). Response latencies in naming objects. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 77, 273–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olton, D. S. (1979). Mazes, maps, and memory. American Psychologist, 34, 583–596.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1963). Learning of adjective-noun paired-associates as a function of adjective-noun order and noun concreteness. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 17, 370–379.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1965). Abstractness, imagery, and meaningfulness in paired-associate learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 4, 32–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1966). Latency of verbal associations and imagery to noun stimuli as a function of abstractness and generality. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 20, 378–387.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1968). A factor-analytic study of word attributes and verbal learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 7, 41–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1975). Neomentalism. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 29, 263–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1971/1979). Imagery and verbal processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates. (Originally published 1971).

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. (1986a). Mental representations: A dual-coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio A. (1986b). Dual coding and episodic memory: Subjective and objective sources of memory trace components. In F. Klix (Ed.), Memory and cognitive capabilities: Symposium in memoriam of Hermann Ebbinghaus (pp. 225–236). Amsterdam: North Holland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A., & Begg, I. (1971). Imagery and comprehension latencies as a function of sentence concreteness and structure. Perception & Psychophysics, 10, 408–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A., & Csapo, K. (1969). Concrete image and verbal memory codes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 80, 279–285.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A., & Csapo, K. (1973). Picture superiority in free recall: imagery or dual coding? Cognitive Psychology, 5, 176–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A., & Harshman, R. A. (1983). Factor analysis of a questionnaire on imagery and verbal habits and skills. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 37, 461–483.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A., & Madigan, S. A. (1968). Imagery and association value in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76, 35–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A. & Yarmey, A. D. (1965). Abstractness of the common element in mediated learning. Psychonomic Science, 2, 231–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A., & Yuille, J. C. (1966). Word abstractness and meaningfulness, and paired-associate learning in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 4, 81–89.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A., & Yuille, J. C. (1969). Changes in associative strategies and paired-associate learning trials as a function of word imagery and type of learning set. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79, 458–463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paivio, A., Yuille, J. C., & Madigan, S. (1968). Concreteness, imagery, and meaningfulness values for 925 nouns. Journal of Experimental Psychology Monograph Supplement, 76 (1, Pt. 2), 1–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, S. E. (1977). Hierarchical structure in perceptual representation. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 441–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfafflin, S. M. (1960). Stimulus meaning in stimulus predifferentiation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 269–274.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Potter, M. C., & Faulconer, B. A. (1975). Time to understand pictures and words. Nature (London), 253, 437–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M., Borkowski, J. G., & O’Sullivan, J. (1985). Children’s metamemory and the teaching of memory strategies. In D. L. Forrest-Pressley, G. E. MacKinnon, & T. G. Waller (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition, and human performance (pp. 111–153). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M., & Levin, J. R. (1977). Task parameters affecting the efficacy of a visual imagery learning strategy in younger and older children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 24, 53–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M., & Levin, J. R. (1978). Developmental constraints associated with children’s use of the keyword method of foreign language vocabulary learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 26, 359–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M., Levin, J. R., & Delaney, H. D. (1982). The mnemonic keyword method. Review of Educational Research, 52, 61–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressley, M., Levin, J. R., & McDaniel, M. A. (in press). Remembering versus inferring what a word means: Mnemonic and contextual approaches. In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prytulak, L. S. (1971). Natural language mediation. Cognitive Psychology 2, 1–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabinowitz, M., & Mandler, J. M. (1983). Organization and information retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 430–439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ratner, H. H., & Myers, N. A. (1981). Long-term memory and retrieval at ages 2, 3, 4. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 31, 365–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed, H. B. (1946). Factors influencing the learning and retention of concepts. I. The influence of set. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36, 71–87.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, J. T. E. (1978). Reported mediators and individual differences in mental imagery. Memory & Cognition, 6, 376–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, J. T. E. (1980). Mental imagery and human memory. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivera, J. de (1959). Some conditions governing the use of the cue-producing response as an explanatory device. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57, 299–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J. P. (1970). Effects of verbal and imaginal learning on recognition, free recall, and aided recall tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 86, 115–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, S., & Simon, H. A. (1977). Modelling semantic memory: Effects of presenting semantic information in different modalities. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 293–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothstein, L. D., & Atkinson, R. C. (1975). Memory scanning for words in visual images. Memory & Cognition, 3, 541–544.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rouse, R. O., & Verinis, J. S. (1962). The effect of associative connections on the recognition of flashed words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1, 300–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, D. C. (1983). Associative asymmetry, availability, and retrieval. Memory & Cognition, 11, 83–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaeffer, B., & Wallace, R. (1969). Semantic similarity and the comparison of word meanings. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 82, 343–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaub, G. R., & Lindley, R. H. (1964). Effects of subject-generated recoding cues on short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 171–175.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schlosberg, H., & Heineman, C. (1950). The relationship between two measures of response strength. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 235–247.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seamon, J. G. (1972). Imagery codes and human information retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 96, 468–470.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segal, A. U. (1976). Verbal and nonverbal encoding and retrieval differences. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, F. (1914). An experimental investigation of perception. British Journal of Psychology, 6, 321–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. C., & Magee, L. E. (1980). Tracing the time course of picture-word processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 109, 373–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snodgrass, J. G., Burns, P. M., & Pirone, G. V. (1978). Pictures and words and space and time: In search of the elusive interaction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 2, 206–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snodgrass, J. G., & McClure, P. (1975). Storage and retrieval properties of dual codes for pictures and words in recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1, 521–529.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snodgrass, J. G., & Vanderwart, M. (1980). A standardized set of 260 pictures: Norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 174–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snodgrass, J. G., Wasser, B., Finkelstein, M., & Goldberg, L. B. (1974). On the fate of visual and verbal memory codes for pictures and words: evidence for a dual coding mechanism in recognition memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 27–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E. (1981). Relations between word decoding speed, general name-retrieval ability, and reading progress in first-grade children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 809–815.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stark, K., & Calfee, R. C. (1970). Recoding strategies in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 85, 36–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroop, J. R. (1935). The basis of Ligon’s theory. American Journal of Psychology, 47, 499–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szalay, L. B., & Deese, J. (1978). Subjective meaning and culture: An assessment through word associations. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorndyke, P. W., & Stasz, C. (1980). Individual differences in procedures for knowledge acquisition from maps. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 137–175.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tversky, B., & Hemenway, K. (1983). Categories of environmental scenes. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 121–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tversky, B., & Hemenway, K. (1984). Objects, parts, and categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 169–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, B. J. (1957). Studies of distributed practice: XV. Verbal concept learning as a function of intralist interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54, 33–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, B. J. (1965). False recognition produced by implicit verbal responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1, 122–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, B. J., & Ekstrand, B. R. (1968). Linguistic associations and retention. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 7, 162–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, B. J., & Richardson, J. (1956a). Some verbal materials for the study of concept formation. Psychological Bulletin, 53, 84–95.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, B. J., & Richardson, J. (1956b). Verbal concept learning as a function of instructions and dominance level. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51, 229–238.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, B. J., & Schulz, R. W. (1960). Meaningjulness and verbal learning. Chicago: Lippincott.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uyeda, K. M., & Mandler, G. (1980). Prototypicality norms for 28 semantic categories. Behavior Research Methods & Instrumentation, 12, 587–595.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanderplas, J. M., & Garvin, E. A. (1959). The association value of random shapes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57, 147–154.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vanderwart, M. (1984). Priming by pictures in lexical decision. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 67–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, L. R., & Horn, J. W. (1982). What does naming a picture do? Effects of prior picture naming on recognition of identical and same-name alternatives. Memory & Cognition, 10, 167–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, R. E. (1972). Stimulus encoding and memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 94, 90–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, R. E. (1974). Association, directionality, and stimulus encoding. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 102, 151–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, R. E. (1977). Time and the spread of activation in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3, 458–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitten, W. B., Suter, H. W. N., & Frank, M. L. (1979). Bidirectional synonym ratings of 464 noun pairs. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 109–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilding, J., & Mohindra, N. (1981). Ratings of the degree of synonymity of 279 noun pairs. British Journal of Psychology, 72, 231–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wingfield, A. (1968). Effects of frequency on identification and naming of objects. American Journal of Psychology, 81, 226–234.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, G. (1967). Mnemonic systems in recall. Journal of Educational Psychology Monographs, 58 (6, Pt. 2).

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodworth, R. S. (1938). Experimental psychology. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wynne, R. D., Gerjuoy, H., & Schiffman, H. (1965). Association test antonym-response set. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 4, 354–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yarmey, A. D. (1974). Effect of labelling-latency of pictures in associative learning of pictorial representations and their word labels. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 28, 15–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yates, F. A. (1966). The art of memory. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yovetich, W. S. (1985). Cognitive processing of Blissymbols by normal adults. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuille, J. C. (1973). A detailed examination of mediation in PA learning. Memory & Cognition, 1, 333–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuille, J. C., & Paivio, A. (1967). Latency of imaginal and verbal mediators as a function of stimulus and response concreteness-imagery. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75, 540–544.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuille, J. C., & Paivio, A. (1968). Imagery and verbal mediation instructions in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 78, 436–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaft, A., & Daehler, M. W. (1979). Naming response times to objects and pictures in very young children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 49, 162.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1987 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Clark, J.M., Paivio, A. (1987). A Dual Coding Perspective on Encoding Processes. In: McDaniel, M.A., Pressley, M. (eds) Imagery and Related Mnemonic Processes. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4676-3_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4676-3_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-9111-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-4676-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics