Skip to main content
Fachgebiete
Automobil + Motoren Bauwesen + Immobilien Business IT + Informatik Elektrotechnik + Elektronik Energie + Nachhaltigkeit Finance + Banking Management + Führung Marketing + Vertrieb Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe Versicherung + Risiko
DE
EN
Bücher
Zeitschriften
Themenseiten
Organisationspsychologie Projektmanagement Marketing Smart Manufacturing
Weitere Formate
Podcasts Webinare Technik Webinare Wirtschaft Kongresse Veranstaltungskalender Awards
Jetzt Einzelzugang starten
Zugang für Unternehmen
Referenzkunden
SLX-Digitalkonferenz: Zukunftswerkstatt 2024

Mehr Umsatz mit Top-Kontakten

Am 7. Mai erfahren Sie, wie Vertriebsteams Leadgenerierung, Leadnurturing und Leadstrategien effizient steuern können.
Erweiterte Suche
Anmelden
nach oben

1983 | Buch

Introduction Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

Environmental Effects of Off-Road Vehicles

Impacts and Management in Arid Regions

herausgegeben von: Robert H. Webb, Howard G. Wilshire

Verlag: Springer New York

Buchreihe : Springer Series on Environmental Management

Enthalten in: Professional Book Archive

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten
insite
SUCHEN

Über dieses Buch

This series is dedicated to serving the growing community of scholars and practitioners concerned with the principles and applications of environ­ mental management. Each volume is a thorough treatment of a specific topic of importance for proper management practices. A fundamental objective of these books is to help the reader discern and implement man's stewardship of our environment and the world's renewable re­ sources. For we must strive to understand the relationship between man and nature, act to bring harmony to it, and nurture an environment that is both stable and productive. These objectives have often eluded us because the pursuit of other individual and societal goals has diverted us from a course of living in balance with the environment. At times, therefore, the environmental manager may have to exert restrictive control, which is usually best applied to man, not nature. Attempts to alter or harness nature have often failed or backfired, as exemplified by the results of imprudent use of herbicides, fertilizers, water, and other agents. Each book in this series will shed light on the fundamental and applied aspects of environmental management. It is hoped that each will help solve a practical and serious environmental problem.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Introduction

1. Introduction
Abstract
Some people perceive arid areas as “God-forsaken wasteland.” Bury and Luckenbach (Chapter 10) point out that some people are unaware of the rich life found in arid areas. Peter Aleshire (1979, p. 143) reports for The Desert Sun in Palm Springs that:
The public is just beginning to realize the value of this arid region. The sun-seared mountains offer geologic histories stretching back 600 million years. The harsh environment has wrung fascinating biological adaptations from a rich variety of plants and animals which live there. And ancient Indian cultures have left their artifacts scattered throughout the region. It is a land which harbors the oldest living things: the lowly creosote bush, which some botanists claim can live to be 10,000 years old. The marks of wind and rain on the land are clear, but scientists have also found square miles of ground covered with pebbles which have not been moved for thousands of years. It is one of the most easily scarred landscapes in the world, and perhaps the slowest to heal.
William J. Kockelman

Physical Effects of Off-Road Vehicle Use

Frontmatter
2. Soil and Soil Formation in Arid Regions
Abstract
Soil is the biochemically weathered mantle on the Earth’s surface that sustains life, functions as a vast reservoir for the collection and storage of water, and absorbs and neutralizes agricultural, domestic, and industrial wastes. As the sustenance for ecosystems, soils can be viewed as the most important part of the natural environment; yet of all parts of the environment, soils are probably the most abused. With declines in the productivity in arid regions continuing as a result of land misuse, the need for rational management of soils is paramount. Off-road vehicle (ORV) use is one of the serious management problems in the arid regions, and management of ORV use to minimize the disturbance to soils requires knowledge of what kinds of soils occur in arid lands and how they form.
Harold E. Dregne
3. The Impact of Vehicles on Desert Soil Stabilizers
Abstract
Because of climatic conditions, deserts have an apparently sparse plant cover. Shrub communities of deserts in the western United States change progressively in composition, density, and size of individuals with increasing height above valley floors, reflecting progressive changes in temperature and abundance, depth, and composition of water (Hunt and Durrell, 1966). The soil between shrubs may appear bare, but it is commonly occupied by microfloral crusts and at least seasonally supports annual plants, whose root systems continue to have a stabilizing effect even if the plant has died. In fact, the sparsity of shrubs creates soil-moisture conditions favorable to microflora (Friedmann and Galun, 1974). Extensive areas of soil not protected by vegetation are covered by rock pavements, commonly of great antiquity. Even here a floral niche is found by diaphanous algae. Even bare soil is protected by silt-clay (mechanical) or salt crusts.
Howard G. Wilshire
4. Compaction of Desert Soils by Off-Road Vehicles
Abstract
The use of off-road vehicles (ORVs) is widespread and a recognized management problem in the deserts of the southwestern United States and elsewhere (Sheridan, 1980). One of the most important and long-lasting effects of ORV use is the compaction of soil caused by the force of rolling wheels. Compaction can be defined as the application of forces to a soil mass which results in an increase in density and strength. Soil compaction is known to be a contributing factor to accelerated soil erosion (Snyder et al., 1976; see Chapter 5) and a cause of decreased plant growth (see Chapters 7 and 13) in deserts. Hence, a quantitative prediction of soil compaction is of fundamental importance in the formulation of management plans designed to minimize adverse impacts of ORVs on soils.
Robert H. Webb
5. Accelerated Water Erosion in ORV-Use Areas
Abstract
Virtually every element of the Earth’s landscape is to some extent the product of erosion. Denudation and sedimentation are inevitable geologic phenomena that man may regard as either benevolent or pernicious depending on the place and time. Erosion of upstream fertile lands, for example, leads to enrichment of the prolific Nile and Mesopotamian floodplains, nuturing the first agriculturalists (Moss and Walker, 1978). From another point of view, modern agricultural researchers commonly estimate that only 0.1 to 0.8 mm year−1 of soil removal can be sustained indefinitely without loss of productivity on croplands (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1975). Yet erosion of thin topsoils, rapid sedimentation of streams and lakes, and gullying of landscapes are in some areas esthetic and economic problems of massive proportions. Figure 5–1, for example, illustrates a Mojave Desert hill slope where erosion has become a serious problem following slope modifications by vehicles. The problem, however, is not erosion per se, but rather erosion rates, and the adjective “accelerated” is commonly applied to erosion rates considered to be significantly greater than “natural.”
Bern S. Hinckley, Richard M. Iverson, Bernard Hallet
6. Accelerated Wind Erosion and Prediction of Rates
Abstract
When vulnerability of the soil to wind erosion is coupled with high surface winds, large-scale damage to agriculture, transportation, and human habitation can result (for example McCauley et al., 1980; Wilshire et al, 1980). The effects of off-road vehicles (ORVs) on areas of arid or semiarid soils may continue long after the ORV event if some physical property of the soil is altered so that natural resistence to damage by wind and rainfall is decreased. Soils disturbed by ORVs may be subject to wind erosion where they were resistent before disturbance (Gillette et al., 1980). Documentation of wind erosion events which occurred after the disturbance of arid and semiarid land is reported by Nakata et al. (1976) and by Wilshire (1980).
Dale A. Gillette, John Adams

Biological Effects of Off-Road Vehicle Use

Frontmatter
7. Plant Ecology in Deserts: An Overview
Abstract
The vulnerability of desert vegetation to off-road vehicle (ORV) impacts, and in particular, the probable longevity of these impacts, is well established for the southwestern deserts of North America. Because of the many similarities of the world’s deserts to those of the United States, consideration of the vegetation of the world’s deserts is also important to management of ORVs. The objective of this chapter is to give the reader an overview of some of the more important aspects of the vegetation ecology and dynamics of the world’s deserts. The emphasis is on the deserts of the southwestern United States since the authors are most familar with this region in both a scientific and practical sense. However, we have no reason to believe that generalizations and concepts gleaned largely from studies of the vegetation of North American deserts will not be applicable to the arid and semiarid regions of other continents, especially when the vegetation types can be considered “matched” (Pielou, 1979) or homologous. In areas with similar climates, similar life forms tend to dominate in the natural vegetation even though such areas may be floristically distinct (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974).
Earl W. Lathrop, Peter G. Rowlands
8. The Effect of Vehicle Use on Desert Vegetation
Abstract
In recent years the delicate desert ecosystem has been challenged by increased use of off-road vehicles (ORVs) (Sheridan, 1979). Families bring dune buggies, motorcycles, and four-wheel-drive vehicles into the desert by the thousands on weekends (Luckenbach, 1975) and this motorized use of the desert has greatly affected the vegetation (Vollmer et al., 1976; Wilshire et al., 1978a, b). The main recreational uses include: (1) motorcycle races, (2) hill climbing, (3) sand dune travel, and (4) trail riding. Associated with these activities are “pit areas” where racers, hill climbers, ORV drivers, and spectators park their vehicles. After several gatherings the pit area is usually bare of vegetation and the soil is greatly compacted (Fox, 1973; Davidson and Fox, 1974; Wilshire and Nakata, 1976, 1977).
Earl W. Lathrop
9. Effects of Off-Road Vehicle Noise on Desert Vertebrates
Abstract
With the increase in the human population in Southern California and the concomitant increase in the use of open spaces for recreation, it has become clear that the activities of off-road vehicles (ORVs) are causing considerable damage to the California deserts. Associated with this use is the spread of high-intensity sounds into formerly quiet desert regions, which suggest that these sounds might have severe impacts on the wildlife in the desert. Some initial studies done before and after motorcycle races indicated increases in the aggressive behavior of kangaroo rats (Dipodomys sp.) after a race passing through an area and the observation that many of the Dipodomys had bloody ears following the race. Following this, Bondello (1976) showed that excessive off-road motorcycle sounds (115 dB A) could damage the acoustical sensitivity of desert iguanas (Dipsosaurus dorsalis).
Bayard H. Brattstrom, Michael C. Bondello
10. Vehicular Recreation in Arid Land Dunes: Biotic Responses and Management Alternatives
Abstract
Sand dunes are a biologically unique fraction of arid land ecosystems. In the southwestern United States they make up only about 0.6% of the surface area (Clements et al., 1957). Throughout this region they have a disjunct distribution and are highly variable, occurring at different elevations and climatic regimes. Desert dunes vary from hummocks less than 1 m high in washes or around dry lake beds to continuous masses covering 500 km2 with peaks up to 200 m above the surrounding land. Most North American dunes are geologically recent, formed by wind-blown deposits from dry lake beds dating from the Pleistocene (10,000+ years B.P.) or earlier. Among the larger inland systems are those at the Great Sand Dunes National Monument (Colorado), White Sands National Monument (New Mexico), Big Dune (Nevada), and the Algodones (= Imperial Sand Hills), Eureka, Dumont, Kelso, Garnet, and Panamint Valley Dunes (California). Several of these are tourist attractions because dunes are intrinsically scenic and provide wilderness solitude.
R. Bruce Bury, Roger A. Luckenbach

Rehabilitation Potential for Disturbed Arid Regions

Frontmatter
11. Regeneration of Desert Pavement and Varnish
Abstract
Desert pavements are stone-covered geomorphic surfaces characteristic of flat or gently sloping alluvial terrain in arid areas. Typically the stones are one layer thick and may be angular or rounded, closely or loosely packed, and are set in or on a matrix of fine-grained material. On many desert pavements the stones are covered with a dark patina known as desert varnish, whereas the stones beneath the surface generally lack desert varnish. Desert pavement surfaces are typically quite smooth and planar, with scattered incised drainage channels. Sparse perennial vegetation is generally present only along these drainages; the majority of the pavement is commonly devoid of significant vegetation. Known as gibbers, hammadas, regs, or sai in various arid regions around the world, desert pavements are especially prevalent on alluvial fans, bajadas, and terraces composed of sediments derived from metamorphic and volcanic rocks.
Christopher D. Elvidge, Richard M. Iverson
12. Control of Rills and Gullies in Off-Road Vehicle Traffic Areas
Abstract
Equilibrium conditions of deserts depend on a delicate balance between their ecosystem, soil structure, and landforms. In the context of this treatise, the balance is best described as dynamic equilibrium. It does not imply absolute equilibrium, but that adjustment to a new situation is attainable within a relatively short time, perhaps within a few years. Obviously, if considered in geologic time spans, dynamic equilibrium has not taken place, because land denudation is the long-term process.
Burchard H. Heede
13. Recovery of Perennial Vegetation in Military Maneuver Areas
Abstract
The California deserts have been used for many years as training grounds for the armed forces of the United States. Figure 13–1 shows the distribution of military camp and vehicular exercise impacts related to the World War II General Patton training areas in the early 1940s, the “Desert Strike” operation in 1964, and “Bold Eagle” joint readiness exercise in 1976 in the California Desert as interpreted from aerial photographs (K. Berry, personal communication, 1978). In addition to these full-scale training exercises, ongoing military impacts arise from the active military bases at Fort Irwin, Twenty-nine Palms, China Lake, and the Chocolate Mountains in California, and in many other areas throughout the world’s deserts.
Earl W. Lathrop
14. Natural Recovery of Soils and Vegetation Following Human Disturbance
Abstract
Humans have disturbed desert soils and vegetation since man began to occupy arid lands. These disturbances were usually restricted to areas adjacent to towns or villages and resulted from tillage, mining, or access trails and roads. With increasing population, development of off-road vehicles (ORVs), and over-grazing, ever larger areas of the desert have been affected. These disturbed areas usually are partially or totally denuded and the soils compacted, causing an acceleration of the natural erosion rate. As the demand for use of these lands changes, disturbed areas are commonly abandoned to recover as best they can. An important management consideration for desert areas is the amount of time required for disturbed areas to recover naturally, because artificial reclamation techniques are very expensive and prone to failure when applied to large arid areas (Chapters 15 through 17).
Robert H. Webb, Howard G. Wilshire, Mary Ann Henry
15. Recovery Rates and Rehabilitation of Powerline Corridors
Abstract
Off-road vehicles (ORVs) and power transmission line construction and maintenance can result in similar environmental disturbances. Both activities directly damage vegetation, disrupt animal life, and considerably alter soil characteristics. These disturbances are usually more obvious and persistent in arid areas, where recovery is very slow (Vasek et al., 1975). Together, power transmission lines and ORVs can lead to greater environmental damage than either one can alone. For example, power transmission line rights-of-way can provide ORV access to previously inaccessible areas and ORV use of transmission line rights-of-way will disrupt or prevent vegetation recovery.
Gilbert D. Brum, Robert S. Boyd, Susan M. Carter
16. History of Revegetation Studies in the California Deserts
Abstract
Revegetation studies in the California deserts are relatively few and all were completed in recent years. They are apparently the result of recently increased public awareness of the environment and increased destructive activity in the desert ecosystem. This chapter outlines all known studies (except that discussed in Chapter 15) and discusses the problems involved in reestablishing vegetation. While none of these studies has involved ORV areas specifically, the problems appear to be the same.
Burgess L. Kay, Walter L. Graves
17. Revegetation and Stabilization Techniques for Disturbed Desert Vegetation
Abstract
Vegetation is very important in protecting the soil and providing cover and food for native and domestic animals. Once this vegetation is destroyed by off-road vehicles (ORVs), grazing, farming, mining, or construction it is important that it be replaced with a similar protective cover as soon as possible as the best means to mitigate the disturbance (McKell et al., 1979; Stelly, 1978; Thames, 1977).
Burgess L. Kay, Walter L. Graves

Case Histories of Off-Road Vehicle Impacts

Frontmatter
18. Off-Road Vehicular Destabilization of Hill Slopes: The Major Contributing Factor to Destructive Debris Flows in Ogden, Utah, 1979
Abstract
The Wasatch Mountains in northern Utah are a north-south trending range with steep slopes caused by faulting less than 10,000 years ago. Through the natural processes of rain, frost-wedging, gravity, and earthquakes these slopes are slowly being eroded. A geologic history of instability is recorded at the base of the range in the form of landslide deposits, debris flows, and rock-fall deposits.
John K. Nakata
19. The Impacts of Off-Road Vehicles in the Coorong Dune and Lake Complex of South Australia
Abstract
The management of off-road vehicles (ORVs) being driven in areas of natural or seminatural vegetation has become a subject of great concern in the coastal areas of North America, Australia, and New Zealand (Australian House of Representatives Standing Committee on Off-Road Vehicles, 1977; Crozier et al., 1977; Gilbertson and Foale, 1977; Godfrey et al., 1978; Hall, 1975; Hozier and Eaton, 1980; Robertson and Wood, 1977; Steiner and Leatherman, 1979; Welsh, 1975; Wood, 1978). The widespread ownership of four-wheel-drive vehicles and trail bikes for normal work or travel purposes in a large cross section of the rural and urban communities of Australia has led inevitably to extensive use of ORVs for recreational purposes. Increasingly, such activity is enjoyed on sites such as abandoned quarries or forestry plantations often close to urban areas, where the magnitude and frequency of use can be managed by state officials or private owners to ensure maximum enjoyment and minimum damage.
David Gilbertson
20. Chrysotile Asbestos in a Vehicular Recreation Area: A Case Study
Abstract
The popularity of off-road vehicle (ORV) recreation provides fresh evidence that not only can man have an adverse impact on particular ecosystems, but these systems in turn can have a negative effect on man. Severe injuries incurred while using recreational vehicles are obvious hazards, but they may be blamed on the participants themselves. A less readily recognized danger lies in the development of chronic or latent diseases related to the geological setting itself. This chapter describes investigations of a California ORV area to evaluate the potential for respiratory diseases attributable to repeated and prolonged exposures to very high concentrations of chrysotile asbestos in ambient-soil and user-generated airborne dust.
William Popendorf, Hans-Rudolph Wenk

Management of Off-Road Vehicles

Frontmatter
21. Management Concepts
Abstract
Off-road vehicle (ORV) use of public and private lands is an extremely controversial issue (Chapter 1). Other land uses—such as for missile sites, grazing, surface mining, water diversions, timber cutting, waste disposal, nuclear-device testing, and wilderness—are also controversial, but according to Sheridan (1979, p. v) none is as controversial as ORV use.
William J. Kockelman
22. Management Practices
Abstract
The management practices discussed here are designed to meet the needs of ORV users, to protect the nation’s resources, and to minimize the conflicts with various other recreational users. The practices are based upon discussions and conclusions in Chapter 21, Management Concepts.
William J. Kockelman
23. Regulations and Education
Abstract
Regulations and education are required to make the management practices discussed in Chapter 22 effective. In addition, techniques for enforcing the regulations, penalties for their violation, and methods of raising revenue are required. The discussions in this chapter are also directed to meeting the needs of ORV users, protecting resources, and minimizing conflicts with other users. Some of the topics discussed were introduced in a 1977 Geological Society of America (GSA) committee report. The laws and techniques discussed are based on experience and accepted jurisprudence; they are believed to be applicable to the recreation programs of federal, state, and local units of government in the United States.
William J. Kockelman
Backmatter
Metadaten
Titel
Environmental Effects of Off-Road Vehicles
herausgegeben von
Robert H. Webb
Howard G. Wilshire
Copyright-Jahr
1983
Verlag
Springer New York
Electronic ISBN
978-1-4612-5454-6
Print ISBN
978-1-4612-5456-0
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-5454-6