Abstract
This chapter sheds light on the operational activities of “terrorist asylum-seekers” in Europe, as well as the nature of connections to foreign terrorist organizations (FTOs) and involvement in crime. Although connections are found to more than a dozen FTOs, the majority are linked to ISIS. Moreover, with one exception, ISIS is the only organization known to have invested in “external operations” against Europe using terrorist asylum-seekers. However, an analysis of relevant plots and attacks suggests that high levels of organizational support have been the exception rather than the rule. Besides plotting and conducting attacks, Mullins reveals that terrorist asylum-seekers have engaged in a range of “non-violent” support activities, including promotion of jihadist ideology, recruitment, facilitation of travel and fundraising. The chapter concludes with a discussion of connections to crime, which have served as an important enabler for terrorists, while also providing vital opportunities for law enforcement.
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Notes
- 1.
Note that long-time European residents/citizens (the Paris and Brussels attackers ) were classed as having “infiltrated with intent”. This accurately describes their operational behaviour without negating the fact that they of course originally radicalized within Europe. Additionally, it is worth noting that not all individuals who infiltrated or infiltrated with intent were confirmed to be members of FTOs . Five individuals were clearly members of terrorist networks, but membership in a specific organization could not be determined. Another two individuals clearly infiltrated with intent (one of whom established connections with ISIS after arriving in Europe), but prior FTO membership again could not be established.
- 2.
The exception was Ibrahim Harun , arrested in 2011, who was acting on behalf of AQ. According to Harun, he had been forcibly placed on a migrant boat after being unexpectedly released from a Libyan prison. Consistent with this account, he repeatedly emphasized that he was not a migrant and demanded that Italian authorities allow him to go back to Libya. Such was his desperation that he even revealed the fact that he was a member of AQ while still at sea. Nevertheless, the US Department of Justice ultimately concluded that he had “planned to surreptitiously enter Europe to carry out terrorist attacks against Western interests” (see “Al Qaeda Operative Convicted of Multiple Terrorism Offenses Targeting Americans Overseas,” US Department of Justice, March 16, 2017, https://www.justice.gov/usao-edny/pr/al-qaeda-operative-convicted-multiple-terrorism-offenses-targeting-americans-overseas; United States of America v. Ibrahim Suleiman Adnan Adam Harun Hausa, United States District Court Eastern District of New York, 12-CR-134 [BMC], Transcript, March 6, 2017 [obtained under the Freedom of Information Act from the Executive Office for United States Attorneys; requested May 2018; received November 2018]).
- 3.
An additional six completed attacks involved at least one asylum-seeker or migrant but were excluded from the analysis because the perpetrators could not be confirmed to fit the sampling criteria (i.e. entry to, or travel within Europe since 2011). They are: (1) the ISIS-inspired murder of a mother in Denmark in October 2014; (2) the Leytonstone Tube stabbing attack in London in December 2015; (3) the placing of an improvised explosive device at a subway station in Oslo in April 2017; (4) the London Bridge and Borough market attacks in London, June 2017; (5) the attacks in Barcelona and Cambrils, Spain, in August 2017; and (6) a stabbing attack on a group of Belgian soldiers in Brussels in August 2017.
- 4.
The four directed overseas were by: (1) Ahmed Faredaws A. (case #7); (2) Unnamed member of Hamas (case #35); (3) Suphi Alpfidan (case #46); and (4) Haikel S., who has been accused of plotting attacks both in Tunisia and Germany (case #54).
- 5.
“Amsterdam Attack: Jihadist Knifeman Shot in Nine Seconds,” BBC News, September 5, 2018, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-45419445.
- 6.
Yet another suspected attack took place in October when a 55-year-old Syrian refugee, claiming to be affiliated with ISIS, set fire to a McDonald’s and briefly took a woman hostage before being shot by police. However, subsequent inquires did not find corroborating evidence of an Islamist motive (“Ermittler: Kein islamistisches Motiv bei Angriff,” Focus, December 14, 2018, https://www.focus.de/politik/deutschland/geiselnahme-am-koelner-hauptbahnhof-ermittler-kein-islamistisches-motiv-bei-angriff_id_10070462.html).
- 7.
Author’s database of jihadist attacks (62 total from 2011 to April 2018).
- 8.
See Sam Mullins, “Lone-actor vs. Remote-Controlled Jihadi Terrorism: Rethinking the Threat to the West,” War on the Rocks, April 20, 2017, https://warontherocks.com/2017/04/lone-actor-vs-remote-controlled-jihadi-terrorism-rethinking-the-threat-to-the-west/.
- 9.
Kirsten Grieshaber and Bassem Mroue, “IS Magazine Describes Bombers Preparations in Germany,” Business Insider, July 27, 2016, http://www.businessinsider.com/ap-is-magazine-describes-bombers-preparations-in-germany-2016-7?IR=T.
- 10.
Hans Leyendecker and Georg Mascolo, “Germany’s ‘Remote-Control’ Terror Attacks, Online Chats Revealed,” Worldcrunch, September 21, 2016, http://www.worldcrunch.com/terror-in-europe/germany-s-remote-control-terror-attacks-online-chats-revealed/c23s21782/.
- 11.
Ibid.
- 12.
Ibid.
- 13.
Florian Flade, “Was das LKA bei Amris Terror-Chat mitlas,” die Welt, March 27, 2017, https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article163180510/Was-das-LKA-bei-Amris-Terror-Chat-mitlas.html.
- 14.
Georg Mascolo and Georg Heil, “Amris Kommunikation ausgewertet: Die Wochen vor dem Berliner Anschlag,” Tagesschau, May 31, 2017, https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/amri-berlin-ermittlungen-101.html.
- 15.
Leyendecker and Georg Mascolo, “Germany’s ‘Remote-Control’ Terror Attacks, Online Chats Revealed,” op.cit; Mascolo and Heil, “Amris Kommunikation ausgewertet,” Tagesschau, op.cit.
- 16.
“Stockholm Attack: Who Is Suspect Rakhmat Akilov?” BBC News, April 10, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39552691.
- 17.
“‘It Is Time to Kill’: Stockholm Attacker Made Terror Video,” The Local, January 30, 2018, https://www.thelocal.se/20180130/stockholm-attacker-charged-with-terror-crime; “Radicalized Uzbek on Trial for Stockholm Truck Attack,” The Local, February 11, 2018, https://www.thelocal.se/20180211/radicalised-uzbek-on-trial-for-stockholm-truck-attack.
- 18.
“Stockholm Attacker Linked to Tajik IS Militants, RFE/RL Investigation Finds,” RFE/RL, February 9, 2018, https://www.rferl.org/a/sweden-attacker-islamic-state-links/29031330.html.
- 19.
“Stockholm Attacker Appears Baffled Over Lack of ISIS Claim,” The Local, February 21, 2018, https://www.thelocal.se/20180221/stockholm-attacker-appears-baffled-over-lack-of-isis-claim.
- 20.
R. vs. Ahmed Hassan, Sentencing Remarks, March 23, 2018, https://www.judiciary.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/r-vhassan-sentencing.pdf.
- 21.
Ibid.
- 22.
Note that although this was a relatively minor incident it was nevertheless clearly inspired by ISIS and was intended to communicate a political/ideological message using the threat of violence in order to generate fear. It thus still qualifies as an act of terrorism.
- 23.
Frederico Moreno, “En kväll går Adnan in på småstadskrogen med en kockkniv i handen,” Expressen, April 2018, https://www.expressen.se/nyheter/qs/last-night/last-night-in-angelholm/.
- 24.
“Hamburg Jihadi Knife Attacker Sentenced to Life,” Deutsche Welle, March 1, 2018, http://www.dw.com/en/hamburg-jihadi-knife-attacker-sentenced-to-life/a-42779081; Hui Min Neo, “Paris Police Station Attacker Was Serial Asylum Seeker With Criminal Past: Berlin,” Yahoo, January 10, 2016, http://news.yahoo.com/paris-police-station-attacker-serial-asylum-seeker-criminal-212714258.html; “Turku Stabbing Attacker Had Lived in Germany,” Deutsche Welle, August 22, 2017, http://www.dw.com/en/turku-stabbing-attacker-had-lived-in-germany/a-40195827.
- 25.
Moreno, “En kväll går Adnan in på småstadskrogen med en kockkniv i handen,” Expressen, op.cit.
- 26.
Laura Backes, Jürgen Dahlkamp, Hubert Gude, Martin Knobbe, Roman Lehberger, Andrew Moussa, and Wolf Wiedmann-Schmidt, “Hamburger Attentäter ‘Der Terror wird hierherkommen’,” Der Spiegel, August 6, 2017, http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/attentat-in-hamburg-wie-ahmad-a-vom-abiturienten-zum-messerstecher-wurde-a-1161417.html; Moreno, “En kväll går Adnan in på småstadskrogen med en kockkniv i handen,” Expressen, op.cit; Neo, “Paris Police Station Attacker Was Serial Asylum Seeker With Criminal Past,” op.cit; “Turku Suspect Wanted to Join ISIS, Called Finns Infidels,” YLE, August 23, 2017, https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/turku_suspect_wanted_to_join_isis_called_finns_infidels/9792749.
- 27.
Daleel, Amri, Akilov, Ahmad A. and Bouanane. As previously noted, this was also the case with Amsterdam attacker Jawed S.
- 28.
Irina Stoica, “Paris Attacker Had Asked for Asylum in Romania in 2011,” Independent Balkan News Agency, January 11, 2016, http://www.balkaneu.com/paris-attacker-asked-for-asylum-in-romania-2011/.
- 29.
“Erst Selbstbezichtigung, dann Schweigen,” Tagesschau, July 30, 2017, http://www.tagesschau.de/inland/attentaeter-hamburg-101.html; Aleksi Teivainen, “KRP: Turku Knifeman Saw Himself as a Soldier of ISIS,” Helsinki Times, February 8, 2018, http://www.helsinkitimes.fi/finland/finland-news/domestic/15318-krp-turku-knifeman-saw-himself-as-a-soldier-of-isis.html.
- 30.
Julien Balboni, “Attentats de Paris: un Belge et un membre du commando de Verviers tués,” La Dernière Heure, December 14, 2017, http://www.dhnet.be/actu/monde/attentats-de-paris-un-belge-et-un-membre-du-commando-de-verviers-tues-58500a3acd709a48787c6d9b; Jean-Charles Brisard and Kevin Jackson, “The Islamic State’s External Operations and the French-Belgian Nexus,” CTC Sentinel 9, no. 11 (2016): 8–15, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-islamic-states-external-operations-and-the-french-belgian-nexus.
- 31.
“Accomplices of Paris and Brussels Attacks Were Targeting Schiphol,” The Brussels Times, October 6, 2016, http://www.brusselstimes.com/belgium/6618/accomplices-of-paris-and-brussels-attacks-were-targeting-schiphol.
- 32.
Guy van Vlierden, “Profile: Paris Attack Ringleader Abdelhamid Abaaoud,” CTC Sentinel 8, no. 11 (2015), 30–33, https://ctc.usma.edu/profile-paris-attack-ringleader-abdelhamid-abaaoud/.
- 33.
Boris Thiolay, “Attentats de Paris: révélations sur les trois Syriens arrêtés en Allemagne,” l‘Express, September 16, 2016, https://www.lexpress.fr/actualite/societe/attentats-de-paris-revelations-sur-les-trois-syriens-arretes-en-allemagne_1831313.html.
- 34.
Henry Samuel, “Suspected Money Man of French Terror Cell Planning Simultaneous Strikes ‘Tried to Enter Britain on False Passport’,” The Telegraph, November 22, 2016, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/11/22/suspected-money-man-french-terror-cell-planning-simultaneous/.
- 35.
Guy van Vlierden, “En u dacht dat netwerk opgerold was na aanslagen in Brussel?” Het Laatste Nieuws, August 9, 2018, https://www.hln.be/de-krant/en-u-dacht-dat-netwerk-opgerold-was-na-aanslagen-in-brussel~a38c742a/.
- 36.
Ibid; Daniel Montero, “Estado Islámico ocultó a terroristas como exiliados políticos para organizar desde España atentados en Francia,” El Español, August 9, 2018, https://www.elespanol.com/espana/20180809/islamico-terroristas-politicos-organizar-espana-atentados-francia/328718048_0.html; and Nuno Tiago Pinto, “Como Portugal ajudou a desmantelar uma rede jihadista europeia,” Sábado, August 9, 2018, http://www.sabado.pt/portugal/seguranca/detalhe/como-portugal-ajudou-a-desmantelar-uma-rede-jihadista-europeia.
- 37.
All but one of the FTO-supported cases were linked to ISIS (the exception being Ibrahim Harun ) and all of the networked cases also had some form of contact with the group. Meanwhile, the four connected cases all had unidentified extremist contacts. In three of them, they were also clearly inspired by ISIS.
- 38.
(1) Mohammed J. (case #42); (2) Jaber al-Bakr (case #43); (3) Diaab Khadigah and Unnamed male (case #48); (4) Munir Hassan Mohammed (case #50); (5) Yamen A. (case #87); (6) Andy Sami Star and Farhad Salah (case #91); and (7) Deday A. (case #93).
- 39.
“Police Arrest ISIS Suspect with Help from Syrians,” The Local, October 10, 2016, https://www.thelocal.de/20161010/german-police-arrest-syrian-bomb-plot-suspect.
- 40.
Anna Reimann and Christoph Reuter, “Wie Jaber Albakr zum Fanatiker wurde,” Der Spiegel, October 17, 2016, http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/jaber-albakr-wie-der-terrorverdaechtige-zum-fanatiker-wurde-a-1116952.html; “Terrorverdächtiger war lange in der Türkei – auch in Syrien?” der Westen, October 11, 2016, http://www.derwesten.de/politik/terrorverdaechtiger-war-lange-in-der-tuerkei-auch-in-syrien-id12267378.html.
- 41.
Reimann and Reuter, “Wie Jaber Albakr zum Fanatiker wurde,” op.cit.
- 42.
“Police Arrest ISIS Suspect with Help from Syrians,” op.cit.
- 43.
Mike Wilms, “Terrorverdächtiger angeklagt IS spähte Ziele im Herzen Berlins aus,” Berliner Kurier, November 10, 2016, http://www.berliner-kurier.de/berlin/polizei-und-justiz/terrorverdaechtiger-angeklagt-is-spaehte-ziele-im-herzen-berlins-aus-25071546.
- 44.
“Berlin IS Terror Suspect Identified German Capital’s Landmarks as Targets,” Deutsche Welle, November 10, 2016, http://www.dw.com/en/berlin-is-terror-suspect-identified-german-capitals-landmarks-as-targets/a-36337447?maca=en-tco-dw.
- 45.
Matthieu Suc, “The Dark World of the Islamic State Group’s Secret Services,” Mediapart, August 22, 2017, https://www.mediapart.fr/en/journal/international/220817/dark-world-islamic-state-groups-secret-services?onglet=full.
- 46.
“Schlimmer Verdacht: Zoher J., der nette Terrorist aus Adlkofen,” Wochenblatt, April 13, 2017, http://www.wochenblatt.de/nachrichten/landshut/regionales/Schlimmer-Verdacht-Zoher-J-der-nette-Terrorist-aus-Adlkofen;art67,437242.
- 47.
“Festnahme eines mutmaßlichen Mitglieds der ausländischen terroristischen Vereinigungen ‘Jabhat al-Nusra’ (JaN) und ‘Islamischer Staat’ (IS),” Generalbundesanwalt, April 12, 2017, https://www.generalbundesanwalt.de/de/showpress.php?themenid=19&newsid=689.
- 48.
Ibid.
- 49.
Note that Zoher J. was charged only with membership in a terrorist organization and weapons violations and not with recruitment and facilitation inside Europe. However, according to the prosecution, this was for “procedural” reasons and a preference for expediency, rather than because the original allegations had proven to be false (Alexander Pausch, “Auftakt zu Terror-Prozess Geheimagent für den IS,” Onetz, April 4, 2018, https://www.onetz.de/bayern-r/politik-by/auftakt-zu-terror-prozess-geheimagent-fuer-den-is-d1832467.html).
- 50.
“DE3”, Interview with author, February 2017.
- 51.
Reis, “Terroristas que jogavam ao pião,” op.cit.
- 52.
Ibid.
- 53.
See case #99 (“DCIAP prepara-se para acusar marroquino preso na cadeia de Monsanto de terrorismo internacional,” Visão, September 16, 2017, http://visao.sapo.pt/actualidade/sociedade/2017-09-16-DCIAP-prepara-se-para-acusar-marroquino-preso-na-cadeia-de-Monsanto-de-terrorismo-internacional; Nuno Tiago Pinto, “The Portugal Connection in the Strasbourg-Marseille Islamic State Terrorist Network,” CTC Sentinel 11, no. 10 (2018): 17–24, https://ctc.usma.edu/portugal-connection-strasbourg-marseille-islamic-state-terrorist-network/).
- 54.
Hugo Franco, Raquel Moleiro, Rui Gustavo, and Lucília Monteiro, “Abdessalam Tazi, líder da célula jiadista de Aveiro, ficou preso em Monsanto,” Expresso, March 24, 2017, http://expresso.sapo.pt/sociedade/2017-03-24-Abdessalam-Tazi-lider-da-celula-jiadista-de-Aveiro-ficou-preso-em-Monsanto.
- 55.
Ibid.
- 56.
“DCIAP prepara-se para acusar marroquino preso na cadeia de Monsanto de terrorismo internacional,” op.cit.
- 57.
Miguel Helm, “In letzter Sekunde,” Die Zeit, August 9, 2018, https://www.zeit.de/2018/33/terrorverdacht-marokkaner-is-internationale-ermittlungen/komplettansicht.
- 58.
Umberto Bacchi, “Italy Arrest ISIS-Sympathetic Somali Asylum Seeker Planning Suicide Bombing in Rome,” International Business Times, March 9, 2016, http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/italy-arrest-isis-sympathetic-somali-asylum-seeker-planning-suicide-bombing-rome-1548561.
- 59.
“Italy Arrests Asylum Seeker for Inciting Terrorism,” Reuters, June 19, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-security-idUSKBN19A0Y6.
- 60.
Tommaso Fregatti and Matteo Indice, “Ecco le immagini degli jihadisti ricercati nelle strade di Genova,” Il Secolo, April 27, 2018, http://www.ilsecoloxix.it/p/genova/2018/04/27/AC5SS2JD-fingendosi_jihadisti_ricercati.shtml.
- 61.
“Condenado a 8 años un yihadista que anunció que quería atentar en España,” El Mundo, February 21, 2017, http://www.elmundo.es/espana/2017/02/21/58ac678fca47414e4f8b4626.html.
- 62.
“Kontaktmann der Terrormiliz verhaftet,” die Glocke, June 9, 2017, http://www.die-glocke.de/lokalnachrichten/kreisguetersloh/rietberg/Kontaktmann-der-Terrormiliz-verhaftet-7e07afae-ca70-473c-8429-6d53fcb3ddd0-ds.
- 63.
Rukmini Callimachi, “Syrian Accused of Working for ISIS News Agency Is Arrested in Germany,” New York Times, https://nytimes.com/2017/06/08/world/europe/syrian-accused-of-working-for-isis-news-agency-is-arrested-in-germany.html.
- 64.
Nicole Hille-Priebe, “IS-Verdächtiger aus Haft entlassen - Ermittlungen dauern an,” Die Neue Westfälische, April 5, 2018, https://www.nw.de/lokal/kreis_guetersloh/guetersloh/22104077_IS-Verdaechtiger-aus-Haft-entlassen.html.
- 65.
Philip Chrysopoulos, “More Than Ten Jihadist Terrorists in Athens ‘Cell’,” Greek Reporter, October 26, 2016, http://greece.greekreporter.com/2016/10/26/more-than-ten-jihadist-terrorists-in-athens-cell/.
- 66.
Rukmini Callimachi, Katrin Bennhold, and Laure Fourquet, “How the Paris Attackers Honed Their Assault Through Trial and Error,” New York Times, November 30, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/01/world/europe/how-the-paris-attackers-honed-their-assault-through-trial-and-error.html.
- 67.
In order of capture: Youcef Bouimaiz and Kamal Agoujil (case #18); Bilal Chatra (case #28); Mourad T . (case #39); and Redouane Sebbar (case #52).
- 68.
Florian Flade, “Wie ‘Koch’ und der ‘Kundschafter’ dem Bataclan-Drahtzieher halfen,” Die Welt, September 15, 2017, https://www.welt.de/politik/ausland/article168645894/Wie-Koch-und-der-Kundschafter-dem-Bataclan-Drahtzieher-halfen.html; Guy Van Vlierden, “Following the Facebook Trail of Abdelhamid Abaaoud’s Scouts,” Emmejihad, March 19, 2018, https://emmejihad.wordpress.com/2018/03/19/following-the-facebook-trail-of-abdelhamid-abaaouds-scouts/.
- 69.
“Kammergericht: Staatsschutzsenat verurteilt IS-Unterstützer zu einer Haftstrafe (PM 26/2017),” Berlin.de, May 10, 2017, https://www.berlin.de/gerichte/presse/pressemitteilungen-der-ordentlichen-gerichtsbarkeit/2017/pressemitteilung.589796.php.
- 70.
“Kammergericht: Staatsschutzsenat verurteilt Berliner IS-Unterstützer zu einer Haftstrafe (PM 8/2018),” Berlin.de, January 18, 2018, https://www.berlin.de/gerichte/presse/pressemitteilungen-der-ordentlichen-gerichtsbarkeit/2018/pressemitteilung.667067.php.
- 71.
Note that this case was first reported after the quantitative portion of this research had been conducted. It is therefore not included in the statistical analysis, nor listed in Appendix A.
- 72.
Tiziana Simula, “La cellula sarda e il boss: Soldi e misteri della jihad,” La Nuova Sardegna, May 12, 2018, accessed via Factiva.
- 73.
“Terrosismo, scattata all’alba l’operazione Foreign Fighters. 14 arresti,” Secondo Piano News, May 10, 2018, https://www.secondopianonews.it/news/cronaca/2018/05/10/terrosismo-scattata-allalba-loperazione-foreign-fighters-14-arresti.html; Lasse Wierup, “46-åringen fick asyl på falska grunder: ‘Skulle aldrig ha beviljats’,” Dagens Nyheter, May 18, 2018, accessed via Factiva.
- 74.
“ANSA-FOCUS/L’ex Foreign Fighter, ‘il kamikaze va in paradiso’,” ANSA, May 11, 2018, accessed via Factiva.
- 75.
Fabio Tonacci, “Blitz con 12 arresti da Brescia a Cagliari. Il giudice: ‘Al-Nusra finanziata con il traffico dei migranti’,” La Repubblica, May 10, 2018, accessed via Factiva.
- 76.
Ibid.
- 77.
Ibid; “ANSA-FOCUS/L’ex Foreign Fighter, ‘il kamikaze va in paradiso’,” op.cit.
- 78.
R. vs. Ahmed Hassan, Sentencing Remarks, op.cit.
- 79.
For example: “Haftbefehl wegen des Verdachts der Begehung von Kriegsverbrechen und Mitgliedschaft in der ausländischen terroristischen Vereinigung ‘Islamischer Staat’ (IS) vollstreckt,” Generalbundesanwalt, September 19, 2017, http://www.generalbundesanwalt.de/de/showpress.php?newsid=729; Detlef Schmalenberg, “Festnahme in Ennigerloh: Mutmaßlicher IS-Kämpfer warb für ‘Heiligen Krieg’,” Kölner Stadt Anzeiger, October 14, 2016, http://www.ksta.de/nrw/festnahme-in-ennigerloh-mutmasslicher-is-kaempfer-warb-fuer--heiligen-krieg--24918384.
- 80.
The one exception is Louati Noussair, who paid for his planned travel to Syria using proceeds from the sale of heroin (Fausto Biloslavo, “Tunisino arrestato a Ravenna ‘Spacciava per unirsi all’Isis’,” Il Giornale, April 23, 2015, http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/tunisino-arrestato-ravenna-spacciava-unirsi-allisis-1119679.html).
- 81.
This was also noted by several interviewees. Within the sample, 41% of cases were either directly involved in, facilitated by or associated with organized crime.
- 82.
Guy van Vlierden, “Handlanger van Abaaoud opgepakt in Duits asielzoekerscentrum,” Het Laatste Nieuws, December 21, 2016, https://www.hln.be/nieuws/buitenland/handlanger-van-abaaoud-opgepakt-in-duits-asielzoekerscentrum~a0d3e517/.
- 83.
Florian Flade, “Terrorpläne in der Frühphase?” Jih@d, February 5, 2016, https://ojihad.wordpress.com/tag/berlin/.
- 84.
‘SW1’ written response to author’s questions, April 2018.
- 85.
“Police Detain 3rd Man in Terror Probe,” ANSA, May 10, 2016, http://www.ansa.it/english/news/general_news/2016/05/10/police-detain-3rd-man-in-terror-probe_424188f0-df13-40c0-b7b8-b62cea86c58b.html.
- 86.
“Terrorismo, Procura di Bari chiede 9 anni per Hakim Nasiri,” Il Quotidiano Italiano, September 28, 2017, https://bari.ilquotidianoitaliano.com/cronaca/2017/09/news/terrorismo-procura-chiede-9-anni-hakim-nasiri-173869.html/.
- 87.
Letizia Cramarossa, “Bari, accusato di essere terrorista: assolto il 25enne afghano Hakim Nasiri,” Il Quotidiano Italiano, June 25, 2018, https://bari.ilquotidianoitaliano.com/cronaca/2018/06/news/hakim-nasiri-afghano-205470.html/.
- 88.
Michele Cirulli, “Gulistan Ahmadzai, il ‘terrorista’ invisibile che nessuno ha visto,” Marchiodoc, May 20, 2016, http://www.marchiodoc.it/2.0/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5887:gulistan-ahmadzai-il-qterroristaq-invisibile-che-nessuno-ha-visto&catid=36:ultime-cronaca&Itemid=37; “Terrorismo, volevano colpire il Circo Massimo e il Colosseo: fermati tre jihadisti tra Bari e Milano,” Il Messaggero, May 10, 2016, https://www.ilmessaggero.it/primopiano/cronaca/terrorismo_fermati_bari-1723022.html.
- 89.
Titti Beneduce, “Pentito casalese rivela: «Rifiutammo di dare armi a un esponente dell’Isis»,” Corriere del Mezzogiorno, September 26, 2018, https://corrieredelmezzogiorno.corriere.it/napoli/cronaca/18_settembre_26/pentito-casalesi-rivela-rifiutammo-dare-armi-un-esponente-dell-isis-4f2b836a-c155-11e8-9767-630cc90bb6ba.shtml.
- 90.
Andrea Busia, “Le riunioni in città col capo militare sunnita,” Unione Sarda, May 15, 2018, accessed via Factiva.
- 91.
Fregatti and Indice, “Nel mirino del jihadista in fuga c’era un centro commerciale di Genova,” op.cit.
- 92.
Marcel Gyr, “Die Anschlagspläne der Schweizer ‘IS-Zelle’,” Neue Zürcher Zeitung, December 2, 2015, http://www.nzz.ch/schweiz/schweres-geschuetz-der-bundesanwaltschaft-1.18656053; “Swiss Accuse Four Iraqis of Planning Attack,” Reuters, October 16, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-swiss-idUSKCN0SA1O420151016.
- 93.
Ten of these cases involved criminal activity inside European territory. Two are known only to have engaged in organized crime before coming to Europe.
- 94.
“Verdacht gegen Polizisten im Fall Amri,” Tagesschau, May 23, 2017, https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/anaisamri-ermittlungen-101.html.
- 95.
“Jäger: Amri schien sich vom Salafismus zu entfernen,” Frankfurter Allgemeine, December 20, 2016, http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/anschlag-in-berlin/jaeger-behoerden-sahen-amri-sich-vom-salafismus-wegbewegen-14597404.html.
- 96.
Katrin Bischoff, “Prozess gegen Drogenhändler: Sind sie Dealer, Kriegsverbrecher oder Gefährder?” Berliner Zeitung, January 24, 2018, https://www.berliner-zeitung.de/berlin/polizei/prozess-gegen-drogenhaendler-sind-sie-dealer--kriegsverbrecher-oder-gefaehrder--29551094; “Haftbefehl wegen des Verdachts der Begehung von Kriegsverbrechen und Mitgliedschaft in der ausländischen terroristischen Vereinigung ‘Islamischer Staat’ (IS) vollstreckt,” op.cit.; “Haftbefehl wegen des Verdachts der Begehung von Kriegsverbrechen und Mitgliedschaft in der ausländischen terroristischen Vereinigung ‘Islamischer Staat’ (IS) vollstreckt,” Generalbundesanwalt, September 19, 2017, http://www.generalbundesanwalt.de/de/showpress.php?themenid=19&newsid=730.
- 97.
Bischoff, “Prozess gegen Drogenhändler: Sind sie Dealer, Kriegsverbrecher oder Gefährder?” op.cit.
- 98.
“Police Arrest Syrian Terrorist Suspect in Northern Greece,” Ekathimerini, October 20, 2017, http://www.ekathimerini.com/222620/article/ekathimerini/news/police-arrest-syrian-terrorist-suspect-in-northern-greece.
- 99.
Andreas Widmayer, “Zwei Flüchtlinge wegen IS-Mitgliedschaft zu langen Haftstrafen verurteilt,” Salzburger Nachrichten, May 10, 2017, https://www.sn.at/salzburg/chronik/zwei-fluechtlinge-wegen-is-mitgliedschaft-zu-langen-haftstrafen-verurteilt-10649665.
- 100.
Paul Cruikshank, “Train Attack Suspect Confesses after Revelations in Academic Journal,” CNN, December 19, 2016, http://edition.cnn.com/2016/12/19/europe/isis-train-attack-suspect-confession/.
- 101.
Stephan Mohne, Oliver Schmetz and Marlon Gego, “Bilal C.: Als Terrorist im Visier, als Dieb verhaftet,” Aachener Zeitung, June 13, 2016, http://www.aachener-zeitung.de/lokales/region/bilal-c-als-terrorist-im-visier-als-dieb-verhaftet-1.1381242.
- 102.
Ibid; Georg Mascolo and Andreas Braun, “Mutmaßlicher Kundschafter von IS-Terrorist Abaaoud Terrorverdacht - Haftbefehl gegen Bilal C.,” Tagesschau, July 7, 2016, https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/is-paris-101.html.
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Mullins, S. (2019). Operational Activity and Connections. In: Jihadist Infiltration of Migrant Flows to Europe. Palgrave Pivot, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13338-2_4
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