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2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

7. Water Quality Control Policies and the Criminalisation of Pollution

verfasst von : Giovanni De Santis, Matteo Fermeglia

Erschienen in: Water Law, Policy and Economics in Italy

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

The present contribution aims to provide a comprehensive account of Italian legislation on water quality and water protection through criminal law. The Italian legal regime on water quality largely builds on the overarching European Union framework, which includes the Water Framework Directive, the Drinking Water Directive and the Nitrates Directive. The path towards full implementation of European water policies in Italy has been, however, all but void of drawbacks and still entails remarkable shortcomings. Hence the Italian implementation of European directives in Italy will be addressed, with a view to highlighting the several nuances with regard to non-compliance and the extensive use of exemptions and derogations. Furthermore, this contribution will provide an overview of the fragmented Italian legal regime for criminalisation of water pollution as interpreted by Italian criminal courts. The upshot of this overview is the ultimate unfitness of the Italian criminal legal regime to adequately ensure water quality protection. Last, the far-reaching 2015 reform of the Criminal Code on environmental crimes is analysed, which arguably paves the way for a more coherent and ecosystem-oriented approach to water quality while strengthening coordination between administrative and criminal responses to water pollution.

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Fußnoten
1
Law no. 319/1976 first introduced the definition and regulation of water discharges for monitoring and sanctioning purposes. This element was originally understood in a very broad fashion, thus including all activities resulting in (direct or indirect) water discharges, on a regular or occasional basis, in all surface and groundwater bodies. This definition has been eventually narrowed down by Legislative Decree no. 152/1999, and most recently by Legislative Decree no.152/2006, so that it now comprises only direct and long-lasting wastewater discharges taking place through run-off systems (Art. 74 of Legislative Decree no. 152/2006).
 
2
In particular, Directive 91/271/EEC concerning urban wastewater treatment and Directive 91/676/CE (the Nitrates Directive, on which see infra, Sect. 7.3.3).
 
3
Case C-32/05, Commission v Luxembourg, Judgment of 30 November 2006.
 
4
Moreover, Italy failed to transpose the WFD within the expected deadline (December 22, 2003) and only acted after the European Court of Justice’s judgment ascertaining the failure of implementation (Case C-85/05, Commission v. Italy, Judgment of 12 January 2006).
 
5
Three Italian RBDs share catchments with other Member States: Western Alps (Slovenia, Switzerland and Austria); Padan (Switzerland and France); Northern Apennines (France). On transnational river basins see also, in this volume, Chap. 9 by Tignino and Gambatesa.
 
6
RBDAs have been established pursuant to Art. 51 of Law no. 221/2015. RBDAs consist of State-Regions boards composed of three main bodies: (1) the Permanent Institutional Committee, which holds decision-making powers, (2) the Secretary General, holding overall responsibility for the work done by the Institutional Committee, and (3) the Technical Committee, which provides technical support to the Institutional Committee for the development of RBMPs.
 
7
Moreover, the repeal of RBAs was contested by Regional administrations and environmental NGOs because the territorial division into RBDs (and the RBDAs supervising them) were deemed unable to reflect local specificities.
 
8
EU Pilot 73041/15/ENVI. The EC dismissed the procedure on 20 February 2019.
 
9
Moreover, the adoption of the Italian RBMPs occurred in different periods: the first RBMP (20 November 2009) was the one by the ‘special statute’ Sicily Region, six further plans were approved on 24 February 2010 while the last one was the plan of the ‘special statute’ Sardinia Region.
 
10
C-85/07, Commission v. Italy, Judgment of 18 December 2007.
 
11
The Decree has introduced a cost-based approach, which defines environmental and resource costs as the costs of measures required to fill the gap to achieve the good water status objective. Hence, costs of measures to be implemented to fill the gap between the actual situation and the status aimed at are considered as environmental and resource costs. Most RBMPs refer to this methodology, but indicate that it has not yet been applied.
 
12
Italy has mapped 2351 national basic measures. Some of them, but not all, apply in all eight RBDs. All the types of basic measures required by Article 11(3) of the WFD have been covered.
 
13
Art. 4 of the WFD allows under certain conditions for different exemptions to the objectives: extension of deadlines (Para. 4); relaxation of environmental objectives (Para. 5); temporary deterioration (Para. 6); modifications to the physical characteristics of surface water bodies or to the level of bodies of groundwater (Para. 7).
 
14
Within this situation, achievement of good status may be extended to 2021 or 2027 at the latest. The water status assessment is based on an evaluation of ecological, chemical and quantitative criteria. Heavily modified or artificial water bodies must only achieve good ecological potential.
 
15
According to Art. 8 of the WFD, for surface waters such programmes shall cover: (i) the volume and level or rate of flow to the extent relevant for the ecological and chemical statuses and ecological potential, and (ii) the ecological and chemical statuses and ecological potential; for groundwaters such programmes shall cover monitoring of the chemical and quantitative statuses. Specific rules on the design of different types of monitoring programmes (surveillance, operational and investigative monitoring) are lied down in Annex V of the WFD (Para. 1.3 for surface waters and Para. 2.4 for groundwaters).
 
16
Ministerial Decree no. 260/2010 complemented Ministerial Decree no. 56/2009 on technical criteria for the classification of surface water bodies (by amending Annex I to Part 3 of the Environmental Code). Further modifications on environmental quality standards have been introduced through Legislative Decree no. 172/2015 and Ministerial Decrees of 6 July and 15 July 2016 (which implemented Directives 2014/80/EU and 2014/101/EU, respectively).
 
17
Monitoring frequencies met the minimum requirements of the Directive at some sites. Conversely, there are some substances and some sites that are monitored less frequently in each RBD. Monitoring frequencies in biota meet the once-a-year requirement of the Directive in each site monitored. In five of the eight RBDs almost all of the priority substances discharged into the RBDs are monitored.
 
18
For Italy as a whole, the proportion of unclassified water bodies has decreased from 50% in the first RBMPs to 18% in the second RBMPs for rivers and lakes and from 90% to 27% for coastal and transitional waters.
 
19
In particular, no surveillance monitoring activities have been undertaken in five of the seven RBDs (not including Sicily) for transitional waters, three RBDs for coastal waters and one RBD for lakes.
 
20
The percentage of groundwater bodies per RBD without monitoring ranges between 18% and 96% and varies amongst different districts. In total, 49% of groundwater bodies are not monitored for quantitative status.
 
21
Ecological status is unknown, however, for the majority of water bodies in the Southern Apennines and Sicily RBDs.
 
22
For individual RBDs this percentage varies between 40% and 50% for the Northern Apennines, Serchio and Southern Apennines RBDs; between 59% and 72% for the Padan and Sardinia RBDs; and between 86% and 95% for the Eastern Alps, the Central Apennines and Sicily RBDs. The Ministerial Decree no. 260/2010 states that good status is achieved when the concentrations of all priority substances are below the corresponding environmental quality standards, implying that the “one-out, all-out” principle is in place in Italy.
 
23
The number of groundwater bodies with unknown status decreased in the Eastern Alps, Padan and Sardinia RBDs, but increased in the Northern Apennines, Central Apennines and Southern Apennines RBDs.
 
24
Microbiological and chemical parameters (Annex I, Part A and Part B of the DWD) are of direct relevance to human health, and therefore any exceedance of the values requires Member States to take remedial action (including restriction in waters use). Indicator parameters (Annex I, Part C of the DWD) encompass microbiological, chemical, as well as acceptability parameters (such as water colour, taste, odour, turbidity). These parameters have only indirect relevance for drinking water quality. Hence exceedances of the values of these indicator parameters require Member States to undertake remedial action only when deemed necessary to protect human health (Art. 8(6) of the DWD).
 
25
For example, a WSZ can be a water treatment plant, where raw water from, say, two dammed drinking water reservoirs is collected and processed; or it could also be an elevated tank, by means of which a district is supplied with drinking water.
 
26
Safeguard areas are in turn composed of absolute protection zones, i.e. areas immediately close to catchment and/or derivation (at least 10 metres distance) and where only catchments and infrastructure services are allowed; and buffer zones, which include areas adjacent to the absolute protection zones and where industrial and other potential detrimental activities for water quality are forbidden (e.g., excavation activities, wastewater discharges, waste management, fertilisers stockpiling and storage).
 
27
It must be noted, moreover, that such high arsenic concentration is mostly due to natural causes, given the highly volcanic nature of a large part of the Lazio territory.
 
28
EC Decisions C (2010) 7605 final, and C (2011) 2014 final, respectively.
 
29
See European Commission MEMO/14/470 and Press Release IP/14/816, 10 July 2014.
 
30
See European Commission, MEMO/19/462, 24 January 2019a, b, c.
 
31
On a separate, yet related score, on July 15, 2019 the EC referred to the European Court of Justice (case C-668/19) another infringement procedure against Italy (no. 2014/2059) for failure to implement Directive no. 91/271/EEC on wastewater treatment. Italy allegedly failed to ensure collection systems in 166 agglomerations (with population equivalent to or more than 2000) and secondary wastewater treatment in 610 agglomerations (with population equivalent to or more than 10,000) across 17 different Regions – including Lazio. Notably, this procedure comes after an EC’s formal notice (issued under Art. 260 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union) urging Italy to comply with a Court’s decision on another violation of Directive no. 91/271/EEC in other areas of its territory (C-85/13, Commission v. Italy, Judgment of 10 April 2014).
 
32
Annex II to the ND; see also Case C-258/00, Commission v. French Republic, Judgment of 27 June 2002, para. 53.
 
33
The specific methodological criteria for the identification and delineation of NVZs, as well as for the carrying out of programmes of measures are set in Annex VII to Section 3 of the Environmental Code.
 
34
EC Implementing Decision 2011/721/EU, [2011] L 287, 36–41.
 
35
EC Implementing Decision 2016/1040/EU, [2016] L 169, 6–13.
 
36
European Commission, MEMO/18/6247, 8 November 2018.
 
37
More specifically, the EC points to the following shortcomings in ND implementation: a) the currently established NVZs are deemed insufficient in light of the many potential high-N-concentration water bodies (i.e., over 50 mg N/ha/year) in non-NVZs areas; b) the lack of N monitoring stations in several NVZs in the above Regions (particularly Calabria and Basilicata); c) the overall inadequacy of the programmes of measures currently adopted in some Italian Regions (especially in Campania, Apulia, Marche, Sardinia, Lazio and Emilia-Romagna) as to properly address N pollution in their NVZs (e.g., from manure).
 
38
The conduct must, however, not fall within the cases sanctioned under Art. 29 quattuordecies, Para. 1, of the Environmental Code, which relates to the emission and discharge limit values included in the permits issued pursuant to Directive 2010/75/EU (Industrial Emissions Directive).
 
39
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 11518/2019 (dep. 15 March 2019), Rv. 276030 – 02.
 
40
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 5239/2016 (dep. 03 February 2017), Rv. 268989 – 01.
 
41
Cass Pen., Sec. 3, no. 21463/2015 (dep. 22 May 2015), Rv. 263750 – 01.
 
42
Cass. Pen., Sec. 4, no. 25547/2018 (dep. 06 June 2018); Cass. Pen., Sec. 1, no. 45001/2014 (dep. 29 October 2014), Rv. 261135 – 01.
 
43
Id.; see also Cass. Pen., Sec. 4, no. 48548/2018 (dep. 24 October 2018), Rv. 274,493–01; Cass. Pen., Sec. 4, no. 15216/2007 (dep. 17 April 2007), Rv. 236168 – 01.
 
44
Examples of major water pollution cases are the following: unauthorised extractive activity in a quarry resulting in water bodies alteration, floods, infiltrations, or coastal areas instability; discharge of waste, wastewater and other noxious substances leading to major ecosystem and habitat deterioration.
 
45
See, with regard to the notorious “Eternit” asbestos case in Casale Monferrato (Piedmont), Cass. Pen., Sec. 1, no. 7941/2014 (dep. 23 February 2015), Rv. 262790 – 01 and Cass. Pen., Sec. 1, no. 2209/2018 (dep. 19 January 2018), Rv. 272366 – 01.
 
46
Cass. Pen., Sec. 4, no. 36626/2011 (dep. 11 October 2011), Rv. 251428 – 01; Cass. Pen., no. 2209/2018, supra n. 45.
 
47
Cass. Pen., Sec. 1, no. 58023/2017 (dep. 29 December 2017), Rv. 271840 – 01.
 
48
For example, see Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 15460/2016 (dep. 14 April 2016), Rv. 267823 – 01 (where the relevant deterioration was found in increased water turbidity and alteration of marine currents, due to a sand runoff as a consequence of construction works for an artificial island).
 
49
These sanctions are raised (by one-third) if the offence is committed in protected natural areas or against protected species (Art. 452 bis, Para. 2, of the Criminal Code).
 
50
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 50018/2018 (dep. 06 November 2018), Rv. 274864 – 01.
 
51
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 15865/2017 (dep. 30 March 2017), Rv. 269489 – 01; Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 46170/2016 (dep. 03 November 2016), Rv. 268059 – 01.
 
52
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 46170/2016 (dep. 03 November 2016), Rv. 268060 – 01.
 
53
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 158652017 (dep. 30 March 2017), Rv. 269491 – 01. Relevant, this decision stemmed from a case of water body pollution caused by wastewater accumulation. For decisions on marine water pollution resulting from seabed clean-up activities see Cass. Pen., no. 46170/2016 (supra n. 51); Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 28732/2018 (dep. 21 June 2018), Rv. 273565 – 01.
 
54
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 52436/2017 (dep. 16 November 2017), Rv. 272842 – 01.
 
55
Sanctions under Art. 452 quater (5 to 15 years imprisonment) are indeed more severe than those under Art. 452 bis. Sanctions are raised by one-third if the crime is committed in protected areas (Art. 452 quater, Para. 2).
 
56
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 29901/2018 (dep. 03 July 2018), Rv. 273210 – 01.
 
57
See Art. 452 undecies and duocedies of the Criminal Code.
 
58
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 9132/2017 (dep. 24 February 2017).
 
59
Cass. Pen., Sec. 3, no. 7220/2020 (dep. 24 February 2020). This decision is consistent with previous ones on work health-and-safety regulations: see Cass. Pen. Sec. 3, no. 26758/2010 (dep. 12 July 2010), Rv. 248097 – 01.
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Water Quality Control Policies and the Criminalisation of Pollution
verfasst von
Giovanni De Santis
Matteo Fermeglia
Copyright-Jahr
2021
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69075-5_7