nach oben

2009 | Buch

Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

Springer Handbook of Mechanical Engineering

herausgegeben von: Karl-Heinrich Grote, Professor Dr.-Ing., Erik K. Antonsson, Professor

Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik"

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Über dieses Buch

Mechanical Engineering is a professional engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis, design, manufacturing and maintenance of mechanical systems. It requires a solid understanding of key concepts including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics and energy. Mechanical engineers use these principles and others for example in the design and analysis of automobiles, aircrafts, heating and cooling systems, industrial equipment and machinery. In addition to these main areas, specialized fields are offered at universities to prepare future engineers for their position in industry, such as: mechatronics and robotics, transportation and logistics, fuel technology, automotive engineering, biomechanics, vibration, optics and others. Accordingly, the Springer Handbook of Mechanical Engineering devotes its contents to all areas of interest for the practicing engineer as well as for the student at various levels and educational institutions. Authors from all over the world have contributed with their expertise and support the globally working engineer in finding a solution for today’s mechanical engineering problems.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering

Frontmatter

1. Introduction to Mathematics for Mechanical Engineering

Abstract

This chapter is concerned with fundamental mathematical concepts and methods pertaining to mechanical engineering. The topics covered include complex analysis, differential equations, Laplace transformation, Fourier analysis, and linear algebra. These basic concepts essentially act as tools that facilitate the understanding of various ideas, and implementation of many techniques, involved in different branches of mechanical engineering. Complex analysis, which refers to the study of complex numbers, variables and functions, plays an important role in a wide range of areas from frequency response to potential theory. The significance of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) is observed in situations involving the rate of change of a quantity with respect to another. A particular area that requires a thorough knowledge of ODEs is the modeling, analysis, and control of dynamic systems. Partial differential equations (PDEs) arise when dealing with quantities that are functions of two or more variables; for instance, equations of motions of beams and plates. Higher-order differential equations are generally difficult to solve. To that end, the Laplace transformation is used to transform the data from the time domain to the so-called s-domain, where equations are algebraic and hence easy to treat. The solution of the differential equation is ultimately obtained when information is transformed back to time domain. Fourier analysis is comprised of Fourier series and Fourier transformation. Fourier series are a specific trigonometric series representation of a periodic signal, and frequently arise in areas such as system response analysis. Fourier transformation maps information from the time to the frequency domain, and its extension leads to the Laplace transformation. Linear algebra refers to the study of vectors and matrices, and plays a central role in the analysis of systems with large numbers of degrees of freedom.

Ramin S. Esfandiari

2. Mechanics

Abstract

Mechanics is the study of the motion of matter and the forces that cause such motion, and is based on the concepts of time, space, force, energy, and matter. A knowledge of mechanics is needed for the study of all branches of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering [2.1]. The subject of mechanics is logically divided into two parts: statics, which is concerned with the equilibrium of bodies under the action of forces, and dynamics, which is concerned with the motion of bodies. The principles of mechanics as a science are rigorously expressed by mathematics, which therefore plays an important role in the application of these principles to the solution of practical problems [2.2]. A force is a vector quantity, because its effect depends on the direction as well as on the magnitude of the action. In addition to the tendency to move a body in the direction of its application, a force can also tend to rotate a body about an axis. This rotational tendency is known as the moment of the force and therefore, moment can be expressed as a vector quantity as well. When a body is in equilibrium, the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero. Thus, the resultant force and the resultant moment are both zero and the equilibrium equations are satisfied.

A large number of problems involving actual structures, however, can be reduced to problems concerning the equilibrium of a particle. This is done by choosing a significant particle and drawing a separate diagram showing this particle and all the forces acting on it. Such a diagram is called a free-body diagram. The same concept is applied to the solution of a rigid-body equilibrium problem as well [2.3]. A truss is a structure composed of (usually straight) members joined together at their end points and loaded only at the joints. Trusses are commonly seen supporting the roofs of buildings as well as large railroad and highway bridges [2.4]. The analysis of truss structures is a typical engineering application of statics. To analyze systems of forces distributed over an area or volume, we have to evaluate the centroids and center of gravity as well as moments of inertia.

Consider a practical question: what is the steepest incline on which a truck can be parked without slipping? To answer this question, we must examine the nature of friction forces in more detail. Eventually the first variational principle we encounter in the science of mechanics is that of virtual work, which controls the equilibrium of a mechanical system and is fundamental to the development of analytical mechanics.

Dynamic mechanics can be divided into two parts: (1) kinematics, which is the study of a geometry of motion and is used to relate displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time, without taking into account forces and moments as causes of the motion, and (2) dynamics, which is the study of the relation between the forces and moments acting on a body, and the mass and motion of the body; it is used to predict the motion caused by given forces and moments or to determine the forces and moments required to produce a given motion.

This chapter is also devoted to kinematics, which is the starting point from which begin the analysis of the basic motion of particles and rigid bodies and the dynamics of a single particle. This is a fundamental concept in which Newtonʼs laws and certain principles of dynamics are introduced. Furthermore, advanced materials, such as the dynamics of systems of particles, momentum equations, Lagrangeʼs equations, energy equations, DʼAlembertʼs principle, and the dynamics of rigid bodies are also included. Lagrangeʼs equations of motion for linear systems are introduced at the end of the chapter, although this can be regarded as the beginning of the vibration.

Hen-Geul Yeh, Hsien-Yang Yeh, Shouwen Yu

Applications in Mechanical Engineering

Frontmatter

3. Materials Science and Engineering

Abstract

The chapter is structured into the following main parts. After a short introduction which addresses the term materials as it is used in mechanical engineering and sorts out other matters for the sake of space, the first main section, Sect. 3.1, describes the fundamentals of atomic structure and microstructure of materials (as defined in the introduction). The following Sects. 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 deal with the most important properties and testing methods of materials from the viewpoint of mechanical engineers. The last and largest Sect. 3.7 is devoted to the most commonly used materials in mechanical engineering.

Jens Freudenberger, Joachim Göllner, Martin Heilmaier, Gerhard Mook, Holger Saage, Vivek Srivastava, Ulrich Wendt

4. Thermodynamics

Abstract

This chapter presents the basic definitions, laws and relationships concerning the thermodynamic states of substances and the thermodynamic processes. It closes with a section describing the heat transfer mechanisms.

Frank Dammel, Jay M. Ochterbeck, Peter Stephan

5. Tribology

Abstract

The main subjects of this chapter are the tribotechnical system, friction, wear and lubrication. Regarding the tribotechnical system essential information on structure, real contact geometry, tribological loads, operating and loss variables are provided. Concerning friction the different friction types, states and mechanisms are discussed. In the sections on wear a lot of details on types and mechanisms of wear, wear profiles and the determination of wear and the average useful life are introduced. The sections on lubrication contain relevant expositions on the lubrication states, like hydrodynamic, elastohydrodynamic, hydrostatic, mixed and boundary lubrication and lubrication with solid lubricants, on the lubricants, like mineral, synthetic and biodegradable oils and additives, lubricating greases and solid lubricants, and on the properties of lubricants, like the behaviour of the oil viscosity depending on temperature, pressure and shear rate and the consistency of lubricating greases.

Ludger Deters

6. Design of Machine Elements

Abstract

A machine generally consists of a motor, a drive, and an actuating element. The mechanical power driving a machine constitutes the rotary motion energy of a motor shaft. Electric motors, internal-combustion motors, or turbines are the most common types of motors. The mechanical power transmission from the motor to the actuating element is accomplished by various driving gears. These include gearings, worm gearings, belt drives, chain drives, and friction gears. Some examples of actuating elements are car steering wheels, work spindles, and screw propellers of ships. This chapter covers the advanced design of machine elements, in particular all common types of gearings and the needed machine components. The in-depth description including stress and strength analysis, materials tables and assembly recommendations allows for a comprehensive and detailed calculation and design of these most important drives. Shafts and axles, shaft-hub assemblies and bearings are included with design guidelines and machining options. Single machine elements, such as specific information about bolts and bolted joints, springs, couplings and clutches, friction drives and also sliding bearings are dealt with only where needed for the benefit of a more general view. The chapter provides the practicing engineer with a clear understanding of the theory and applications behind the fundamental concepts of machine elements.

Oleg P. Lelikov

7. Manufacturing Engineering

Abstract

Manufacturing is the set of activities converting raw materials into products in the most possible cost effective way, including design of goods, manufacturing parts and assembling them into products (subassemblies) using various production methods and techniques, the sale of products to customers, servicing, maintaining the product in good working order, and eventually recycling materials and parts. Whilst the design stage costs about 10-15% of all manufacturing costs, its effect on all other activities is enormous. The designed product has to be easy to make, easy to assemble, maintainable at a competitive cost level, and finally it should be economically recyclable. This is why concurrent engineering (CE) is a systematic approach integrating the design stage and manufacturing stage of products with a view to optimizing all elements involved in the life cycle of a product.

Due to the vast complexity of manufacturing engineering it can only be dealt with in a number of different chapters. The sections in this chapter illustrate the most important manufacturing processes from casting to assembly, from the first shape giving process to the last component integrative process. In between the reader will find a variety of manufacturing processes, including the most recent technologies, e.g. microbonding, nanotechnology, and others. Chapter 10 describes the front end of manufacturing, i.e. design, and Chap. 16 is allocated to quality assurance in manufacturing engineering. Finally, Chap. 17 is devoted to manufacturing logistics and manufacturing system analysis.

Thomas Böllinghaus, Gerry Byrne, Boris Ilich Cherpakov (deceased), Edward Chlebus, Carl E. Cross, Berend Denkena, Ulrich Dilthey, Takeshi Hatsuzawa, Klaus Herfurth, Horst Herold (deceased), Andrew Kaldos, Thomas Kannengiesser, Michail Karpenko, Bernhard Karpuschewski, Manuel Marya, Surendar K. Marya, Klaus-Jürgen Matthes, Klaus Middeldorf, Joao Fernando G. Oliveira, Jörg Pieschel, Didier M. Priem, Frank Riedel, Markus Schleser, A. Erman Tekkaya, Marcel Todtermuschke, Anatole Vereschaka, Detlef von Hofe, Nikolaus Wagner, Johannes Wodara, Klaus Woeste

8. Measuring and Quality Control

Abstract

Considering the incessantly increasing requirements to the quality of products and processes it is necessary to improve a quality-orientated management in all departments of any types of companies and the advantageous application of manufacturing measurement equipment.

In addition to diverse technical requirements are also to consider the requirements of national, international and company-specific norms. The companies must not only fulfill the requirements of the quality, but also the requirements of safety, environment and economy.

As follows some aspects of the manufacturing measurement technology and quality management and their integration into a manufacturing process will be introduced.

Starting with manufacturing geometrical conditions and statements at drawings (nominal state and geometrical limits) the use of measurement equipment and gages to the evaluation of geometric elements will be described. Basic knowledge to measuring standards, uncertainties as well as calibration and measuring instrument inspection will mediates. Based on physical principles equipment and methods for the registration of measurement values, form- and position deviations and surface characteristics will introduce.

Norge I. Coello Machado, Shuichi Sakamoto, Steffen Wengler, Lutz Wisweh

9. Engineering Design

Abstract

The development and design of engineering systems following a methodical approach based on information from the literature [9.1,2,3,4,5,6] is a useful procedure. The guidelines for design methodology have also been applied to interdisciplinary development projects of this type, using aids such as requirements lists, the functional structure, and morphological boxes, to name just a few. During the design phase of the product development process it is important to comply with the basic design rules: simple, clear, and safe [9.3]. Several examples that clearly show the realization of these three criteria are included in this chapter.

Alois Breiing, Frank Engelmann, Timothy Gutowski

10. Piston Machines

Abstract

Piston machines are the most used power and work machines in the mechanical engineering industry. The piston machines are divided in so-called reciprocating and rotary piston machines. With the first one a reciprocating motion is transformed to a rotary motion in the case of the power machine and conversely in the case of the working machine. Today rotary piston machines are almost exclusively used as work machines. Important innovations and intensive researches are practiced particularly for the use of the piston machines as an internal combustion engine. Therefore the mixture formation and the combustion process, with their consequences in terms of emission and fuel-consumption are int the center of attention.

Vince Piacenti, Helmut Tschoeke, Jon H. Van Gerpen

11. Pressure Vessels and Heat Exchangers

Abstract

This chapter is intended to present an overview of Pressure Vessels/Heat Exchangers and covers basic design concepts, Loadings & testing requirements relevant to these equipment. Design criteria, fabrication, testing & certification requirement of various Standards/Codes adopted in different countries are discussed on a comparitive basis to bring out similarities of features.

In order to complete the overview, a brief discussion is provided on commonly used Materials of construction and their welding practises along with updates on the on-going developments in this area.

The author is a Mechanical engineering graduatefrom M.S University-Baroda (India) & has over 20 years experience in design and fabrication of Pressure Vessels, exchangers, Skid mounted plants and Fired Heater modules for Refinery, petrochemical Nuclear & chemical plants in India & abroad.

Ajay Mathur

12. Turbomachinery

Abstract

The following chapter consists of two sections. Section 12.1 presents a concise treatment of the theory of turbomchinery stages including the energy transfer in absolute and relative systems. Contrary to the traditional approach that treats turbine and compressor stages of axial, radial or mixed configurations differently, these components are treated from a unifying point of view.

Section 12.2 is dedicated to steady and unsteady performance of gas turbine engines, where the components are treated as generic modules. Thus, any arbitrary power generation or aircraft gas turbine engine with single or multiple shafts can be composed of these modules. Several examples show, how different gas turbine configurations can be constructed and dynamically simulated. Finally, a section about the new generation gas turbines shows, how the efficiency of gas turbines can be improved far beyond the existing level.

This chapter is based on [12.1], where the reader finds detailed explanation of relevant aerodynamic aspects of turbomachines, their component losses and efficiencies, and the design and off-design performance calculations.

Meinhard T. Schobeiri

13. Transport Systems

Abstract

Transportation is derived from two Latin words trans and porta meaning in between and carrying, respectively. Transportation is seen as one of the basic human needs and has a significant impact on a countryʼs economy; productivity usually correlates well with the amount of transportation of goods and people. Transportation takes place on the ground, sea, and in the air and can be subdivided into the areas automotive, railway, naval, and aerospace. The respective engineering disciplines have gained increasing importance in the past as they face severe challenges for the future arising from: (i) increased transportation demand and customer needs, (ii) shortage of energy and rising fuel prices, and (iii) more stringent legislative requirements regarding for example pollutant and noise emissions and safety issues.

Section 13.2 provides an overview of aspects of automotive engineering. It starts with a historical view of how cars have evolved over time until today. Section 13.2.2 covers automotive technology, first describing the different car types and the fundamental requirements for car development. The technological areas and corresponding components relevant to cars are then briefly explained according to their major functions, the requirements they have to fulfill, and the challenges for further development in the future.

The car development process, with emphasis on the early phase where the car concept is defined and verified, is described in Sect. 13.2.3. Finally, some methods used in car development and cross-functional aspects to be covered in order to manage the car development process and meet the goals of a car development project are depicted.

At the end of the Chapter, a list of references is provided which will enable the interested reader to obtain detailed information about the technological aspects of modern cars and their development. For general reading on automotive engineering, refer also to [13.1,2,3,4,5].

Gritt Ahrens, Torsten Dellmann, Stefan Gies, Markus Hecht, Hamid Hefazi, Rolf Henke, Stefan Pischinger, Roger Schaufele, Oliver Tegel

14. Construction Machinery

Abstract

In this chapter the most common classes of machinery found on construction sites will be presented. For the purpose of this chapter the authors focus on construction machinery and equipment applications in the building and public utility sectors of the construction industry. The classes of machinery and equipment for earth, concreting, assembly, and finishing works described in this chapter are used not only in these two construction industries, but also in road, bridge, and railway building; pile, tunnel, and water foundation; the opening of mines; the building of natural gas and petroleum pipelines; sewerage systems; cooling towers for the power industry; and other industrial building structures.

One should note that specialized equipment ensuring the efficiency, high quality, and safety of work during the realization of structures is used in almost all these kinds of construction. Even a brief description of this equipment would require a separate publication. For example, in road building alone 63 types of machines (see the draft International Standard ISO/FDIS 22242) are used. In the final part of this chapter the state of automation and robotization of construction machinery is presented.

Eugeniusz Budny, Mirosław Chłosta, Henning Jürgen Meyer, Mirosław J. Skibniewski

15. Enterprise Organization and Operation

Abstract

Organizations (derived from the Greek word organon, meaning tool) are instruments for enterprise objectives fulfilment. These objectives are to perform and produce products and services. Engineering and industrial production emphasize human-initiated, controlled, and deliberately executed combinations and transformations of resources by energy and information for the supply of market goods and products. Therefore organizations in engineering and manufacturing include the planned and purposeful action of human beings. In order to meet such objectives, formal groups of people with shared goals concerning transformation execution and output performance are configured.

Any arrangements of resources devoted to objective fulfilment constitute operations functions, or for short, operations. Technical devices can be provided to execute operations for transformation steps.

The amounts of labor involved can be coped with faster and with better quality by planned division into packages assigned to individuals for well-coordinated (repetitive) execution. For the individuals involved, operations represent tasks to be fulfilled. Combinations and syntheses of tasks and responsibilities in total constitute organization structures or parts of organizations.

In this section, the focus of our attention is on noncontractual and contractual types of collaborations among independent enterprises, pooling their core competencies to form so-called enterprise networks, aiming to achieve a common goal. The enterprise networks considered are composed of two or more partners collaborating under a variety of bilateral relationships [15.1].

Francesco Costanzo, Yuichi Kanda, Toshiaki Kimura, Hermann Kühnle, Bruno Lisanti, Jagjit Singh Srai, Klaus-Dieter Thoben, Bernd Wilhelm, Patrick M. Williams

Complementary Material for Mechanical Engineers

Frontmatter

16. Power Generation

Abstract

The chapter contains 32 sections. Section 16.1 gives an introduction to the principle of energy supply. This section also provides the state of the art of the economics of various energy resources. Different types of fuels and their characteristics are discussed in Sect. 16.3. The conversion of different forms of energy has been explained in Sect. 16.5. Working principles of different power plants like gas turbines, the internal combustion (IC) engine, fuel cells, nuclear, and combined cycle system are discussed in Sects. 16.6–16.10.

Section 16.11 explores the inherent features of the integrated gasification combined cycle system. Various types of gasifiers and their working procedures are explained in this section. Section 16.12 provides updated information about magnetohydrodynamic power generation and detailed information about various types of cogeneration system is also explained in Sect. 16.13.

Sections 16.14 and 16.15 explain the transformation of regenerative energies. These sections are mainly devoted to wind and solar energy conversion. Harvesting solar energy using solar ponds and solar chimneys is also explained in this section. The concept and working principle of the heat pump is explained in Sect. 16.16.

Section 16.17 contains the information about energy storage and distribution systems. Energy storage is used to offset the adverse effects of fluctuating demands for electricity and to assure a steady output from existing power plants. Various energy storage devices like pumped hydro, thermal energy, and hydrogen energy are described.

The furnace is the heart of a power generation system. Understanding its internal features and working principle is very important for a power plant professional. Section 16.18 satisfies these needs. It not only provides the characteristics of furnace combustion, but also provides the emission characteristics of furnace. Recent combustion technologies like fluidized bed combustion, bubb- ling fluidized bed combustion, and circulating fluidized bed combustion are also explored in Sect. 16.19.

Section 16.21 provides more details about the working principles of various types of burners. Inside the furnace the fuel must be evenly dispersed in the combustion airstream such that the fuel and air can come into intimate contact. Failure to achieve this results in unburnt or partially burnt fuel. The burner design attempts to achieve this by using a variety of techniques. Sections 16.22 and 16.23 facilitate understanding of various furnace accessories and technologies available to control emission.

The boiler is a key component in modern, coal-fired power plants; its concept, design, type, and integration into the overall plant considerably influence costs. The operating behavior and availability of the power plant are discussed in Sect. 16.24. Details of the various components of a steam generator are provided in Sect. 16.25.

Energy balance analysis and the efficiency calculation of furnace are described in Sects. 16.26–16.28. Thermodynamic calculations such as furnace design, boiler strength calculations, and heat transfer calculations are discussed in Sects. 16.29 and 16.30. Various types of nuclear reactors and their working principles are elaborated in Sect. 16.31. Finally, Sect. 16.32 is devoted to a discussion of future prospects and conclusions.

Dwarkadas Kothari, P.M.V. Subbarao

17. Electrical Engineering

Abstract

Electricity is the most flexible form of energy accessible to humans. It can be transported over long distances, and transformed into almost any other kind of energy like heat, radiation or kinetic energy. Electrical engineering is very closely coupled especially to mechanical engineering but also to many other fields of engineering.

This chapter will give an overview of the theoretical fundamentals of electric phenomenon and some practical electric processes and application. It should be understood as a basic source of information about the most important issues in electrical engineering. For further reading the references will give a deeper insight into the mentioned scientific fields. The reader will get information about the fundamentals of electrical engineering in Sect. 17.1. Here the physical phenomenon of electric currents and voltages are explained. The electrical aspects of the main electrical machines transformer, generators and motors are explained in the Sects. 17.2, 17.3 and 17.5.

Power electronics have become a very important issue in transformation of different forms of electricity and in control of machinery. The reader will be informed about the basic working principles of this scientific field in Sect. 17.4.

This chapter places a emphasis on the section Electric Power Transmission and Distribution (17.6). In this section the fundamentals of electricity transport, distributed generation (especially from renewable sources) and the energy system protection are given.

Seddik Bacha, Jaime De La Ree, Chris Oliver Heyde, Andreas Lindemann, Antje G. Orths, Zbigniew A. Styczynski, Jacek G. Wankowicz

18. General Tables

Stanley Baksi

Backmatter

Titel: Springer Handbook of Mechanical Engineering
herausgegeben von: Karl-Heinrich Grote, Professor Dr.-Ing.
Erik K. Antonsson, Professor
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Electronic ISBN: 978-3-540-30738-9
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-49131-6
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-30738-9

Premium Partner

Marktübersichten

Die im Laufe eines Jahres in der „adhäsion“ veröffentlichten Marktübersichten helfen Anwendern verschiedenster Branchen, sich einen gezielten Überblick über Lieferantenangebote zu verschaffen.

Zur Marktübersicht