Moon

Frontmatter

A Survey of Geologic Resources

Introduction

This chapter focuses on the resources available from the Moon itself: regolith, geologically concentrated materials, and lunar physical features that will enable habitation and generation of power on the surface. This chapter briefly covers the formation of the Moon and thus the formation of the crust of the Moon, as well as the evolution of the regolith. The characteristics of the regolith are provided in some detail, including its mineralogy and lithology. The location of high concentrations of specific minerals or rocks is noted. Other ideal locations for in situ resource utilization technology and lunar habitation are presented.

Jennifer Edmunson, Douglas L. Rickman

Helium Isotopes in the Lunar Regolith – Measuring Helium Isotope Diffusivity in Lunar Analogs

Introduction

The purpose of the present chapter is to provide information about the diffusivities and activation energies of ⁴He and ³He in analogs of lunar ilmenite, which has been theorized to retain helium isotopes better than other lunar minerals. The presence of noble gases in the surfaces of lunar fines was discovered in early Apollo samples by several investigations (Bauer et al. 1972, Ebergart et al. 1970, Hintenberger et al. 1970). The correlation between lunar helium and the mineral ilmenite was discovered by Eberhart et al. (1970) and subsequently others (Muller et al. 1976, Signer et al. 1977). This correlation was rediscovered by researchers at the University of Wisconsin in the early 1980’s while researching sources of ³He for fuel for future fusion reactors (Cameron 1988). The data presented here raise questions about the diffusivities of helium in other lunar minerals and will be useful in the design of future lunar miners. This chapter also provides insight into the mechanisms of space weathering on airless bodies.

Kimberly R. Kuhlman, Gerald L. Kulcinski

Water on the Moon: What Is Derived from the Observations?

Introduction

Further exploration and utilization of the Moon crucially depends on the answer to the question: is there water on the Moon and, if so, in which form? Being a differentiated silicate planet without an atmosphere and with high day temperature, the Moon did not inspire many expectations for presence of water or any other volatile with small molecular weight. A hope of finding ice on the lunar surface was resuscitated by the hypothesis of ice delivery to the lunar poles after cometary impacts (Watson et al. 1961, Arnold 1979). Water molecules from a comet nucleus were supposed to migrate in the lunar exosphere until being trapped in cold polar regions. Less important sources of migrating water could be water-bearing meteorites and volcanic gases. Much effort has been devoted to study formation of “polar caps” and ice stability (e.g. Butler 1997, Starukhina 2008).

Larissa Starukhina

Theoretical Modeling, Numerical Simulation, and Retrievals from Chang’E-1 Data for Microwave Exploration of Lunar Surface/Subsurface

Introduction

China had successfully launched its first lunar exploration satellite Chang’E-1 (CE-1) on 24 October 2007 at lunar circle orbit ~200 km. A duplicate CE-2 at lower orbit ~100 km was also launched in 1 October 2010. A multi-channel microwave radiometer, for the first time, was aboard the CE-1 (and CE-2) satellite with the purpose of measuring the microwave thermal emission from the lunar surface layer (Jiang and Jin 2011). There are four frequency channels for CE-1 microwave radiometer: 3.0, 7.8, 19.35 and 37.0 GHz. The observation angle is 0°, the spatial resolution is about 35 km (for the channels 7, 19, 37 GHz) and 50 km (for 3 GHz), and the radiometric sensitivity about 0.5 K. The measurements of the multi-channel brightness temperature, T _B, are applied to invert the global distribution of the regolith layer thickness, from which the total inventory of ³He (Helium-3) stored in the lunar regolith layer can be estimated quantitatively (Jiang and Jin 2011; Fa and Jin 2007a,b; 2010a,b; Jin and Fa 2009, 2010).

Ya-Qiu Jin

Lunar Minerals and Their Resource Utilization with Particular Reference to Solar Power Satellites and Potential Roles for Humic Substances for Lunar Agriculture

Introduction

Plans for manned bases on the Moon have been conducted by engineers and scientists for many years after the Apollo missions. Reports on lunar bases and space activities of the 21st century have been published in NASA Conference Publication 3166 (Mendell 1992). Taking human-kind to another world to stay is after all a major philosophical question. So, we should ask the rhetorical question: “What is required for humans to survive on the Moon”? The “basic needs” to be met in comparison with earth, include food, shelter, and an energy source. Water and air are so abundant that often they are overlooked. On the moon humans will need to have oxygen and water supplied in addition to food, shelter and energy to survive. Since some of these topics are explained in other chapters, after looking at the usefulness and global distribution of minerals, we will introduce utilization of plagioclase, the most abundant minerals of the highland. This topic is also related to our science themes of why we want to be on the moon. The formation of plagioclase highland crust from the lunar magma ocean is the most important questions to be answered. For such lunar exploration, we will not establish multi purpose permanent bases. Instead, we are assuming a small base for construction of a solar power station to solve energy crises on Earth, and small agricultural dome to glow green vegetables.

Yuuki Yazawa, Akira Yamaguchi, Hiroshi Takeda

Lunar Holes and Lava Tubes as Resources for Lunar Science and Exploration

Introduction

The Moon is the nearest celestial body to the Earth. As such, it has long been investigated to understand its formation and evolution, as a paradigm for better understanding the terrestrial planets, as well as all airless bodies in our solar system (e.g., Vesta, Phobos). The Moon’s proximity to the Earth—more than one hundred times closer than any planet — makes it a convenient target for exploration by spacecraft. Since the dawn of the space age in the previous century, we have explored the Moon with several spacecraft and even succeeded in sending astronauts there. One of the lessons of those explorations that hinders any future lunar expeditions is the severe conditions on the lunar surface. The lack of an atmosphere (10-12 torr) means that cosmic/galactic/solar rays, as well as the many micrometeorites directly striking the surface; in addition, surface temperatures vary widely, over a day-night range of more than 300 K.

Junichi Haruyama, Tomokatsu Morota, Shingo Kobayashi, Shujiro Sawai, Paul G. Lucey, Motomaro Shirao, Masaki N. Nishino

Oxygen from Lunar Regolith

Background and Introduction

In the year 2004 NASA declared its mission to prepare for a return of man to the moon as early as 2015 but no later than 2020, while continuing with robotic missions to Mars (NASA 2004). As a long-term goal, it was intended to establish permanent human presence on the moon and eventually send human missions to Mars. Although the future of US space exploration policy is now more uncertain, following a recent review (Augustine Commission 2009) and the cancellation of the Constellation Program (NASA 2010a), it remains true that an extended human presence on the moon is desirable for scientific and economic reasons (e.g., Crawford 2004; Spudis 2005). For this to become possible, significant progress is needed in the field of ‘living off the land’, or in situ resource utilisation (ISRU).

Carsten Schwandt, James A. Hamilton, Derek J. Fray, Ian A. Crawford

In-Situ Water Production by Reducing Ilmenite

Introduction

Water is considered to be a fundamental condition of human’s colonization of the moon. The supply of oxygen is essential to the utilization of most lunar resources. According to the result of rough calculation, the cost for delivering oxygen from earth to moon for a ten-people lunar base will be nearly 5 to 9 billion dollars a year (Schrunk 1999; Taylor and Carrier 1993; Duke 2003). The cost is so high that water cannot be entirely supported by transportation from the Earth. Nevertheless, there are considerable mineral reserves in lunar soil. Compared to transporting water from earth directly, it is more economical to extract it from the lunar soil. The effects of meteorites, solar wind and cosmic ray make most of the lunar surface covered with a layer of lunar soil. The thickness of lunar soil is approximately 4~5 meters at the mare and >10 meters on the highland. The only practical source of water in the lunar soil is igneous minerals which contain typically 40 to 50% oxygen as oxides. The major minerals are ilmenite, anorthite, and olivine. All these oxides can provide oxygen and water to the lunar base even though some of them cannot be easily reduced. Compared with oxides of silicon, aluminum, titanium, calcium or magnesium, it is much more easily to extract oxygen from iron oxide such as ilmenite.

Yang Li, Xiongyao Li, Shijie Wang, Hong Tang, Hong Gan, Shijie Li, Guangfei Wei, Yongchun Zheng, Kang T. Tsang, Ziyuan Ouyang

Potential ISRU of Lunar Regolith for Planetary Habitation Applications

Introduction

When humans return to the Moon, In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) of lunar regolith will allow a more efficient, less costly, and thus, a more sustainable human presence on the Moon to be achieved. Maintaining a human presence on the Moon will require methods to mitigate lunar dust, provide protection from micro-meteoroid impact, and reduce astronaut exposure to radiation. It would also be desirable to grow plants at the outpost, both for food and other life support purposes. Furthermore, extraction of resources such as Helium-3, metals, and oxygen from lunar regolith would also be of value.

Eric J. Faierson, Kathryn V. Logan

Lunar Drilling, Excavation and Mining in Support of Science, Exploration, Construction, and In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU)

Space and Lunar Exploration: Historical Review

Exploration of almost any extraterrestrial body follows a path from low complexity, low science pay-off to high risk, high pay off. The Moon, being the closest extraterrestrial body, was the first body to be examined with a naked eye by ancient astronomers and philosophers from Babylonia, Greece, and Egypt. The invention of a telescope by Hans Lipperhey in 1608 allowed much more detailed observation of the Moon. With the aid of telescopes, Galileo Galilee could not only view details of the lunar surface, but also discovered the four largest moons of the Jupiter: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto (now called Galilean satellites). The next leap in exploration of space was possible thanks to the development of rockets. Initially, rockets were built for military purposes only. During World War II, these included infamous V2 rockets and soon after, during the Cold War; they included Inter Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) capable of carrying nuclear warheads across the oceans. The ICBMs later formed the foundation for space rockets.

Kris Zacny

Challenges in Transporting, Handling and Processing Regolith in the Lunar Environment

Introduction

It is well known that powders become more ‘cohesive’ as their mean particulate size decreases. This phenomenon is evidenced by such characteristics as poor flowability, clumping, avalanching, difficulty in fluidizing, and formation of quasi-stable, low-density configurations that are easily compacted. Gravity is often the primary driving force for powder movement in common powder processing and transfer operations. Because of this, gravity plays a role in how the flow behavior of powders is typically characterized. As a result, the ‘cohesiveness’ of a powder varies with gravity-level, with a powder appearing more ‘cohesive’ as the effective gravity level is decreased.

Otis Walton

Power System Options for Lunar Surface Exploration: Past, Present and Future

Introduction

Robotic and human surface exploration of the Moon has been, and still is, a primary goal in the short- as well as long-term exploration program of many space exploration and exploitation agencies.

Simon D. Fraser

The Use of Lunar Resources for Energy Generation on the Moon

Introduction

Energy is fundamental to nearly everything that humans would like to do in space, whether it is science, commercial development, or human exploration. If indigenous energy sources can be developed, a wide range of possibilities emerges for subsequent development. Some of these will lower the cost of future exploration, others will expand the range of activities that can be carried out, and some will reduce the risks of further exploration and development. This picture is particularly true for the Moon where significant electrical energy will be required for a number of lunar development scenarios; including science stations, lunar resource processing, and tourism. As example, the presence of water in the permanently shadowed craters at the poles of the Moon (Colparete et al. 2010; Heldman et al. 2011) will allow for propellant production: oxygen and hydrogen through electrolysis which will require significant amounts of electrical energy. Further, proposed large radio telescopes on the back side of the Moon would require over 1 MW of power for echo microwave astronomy. The availability of solar cell raw materials in the surface regolith of the Moon, e.g., silicon, and the fact that the surface of the Moon is an ultra-high vacuum (1 x 10^− 10 Torr) environment allows for the direct fabrication of thin film solar cells directly on the surface of the Moon.

Alex Ignatiev, Alexandre Freundlich

Perpetual Sunshine, Moderate Temperatures and Perpetual Cold as Lunar Polar Resources

Introduction

Because the Moon’s spin axis is nearly perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, sunlight is always horizontal at the poles. This results in a thermal environment that is almost constant and is benign relative to any other parts of the lunar surface. Also in the polar regions, topography provides places, such as crater bottoms, where sunlight never strikes the surface. In the perpetual darkness there, equilibrium temperatures are extremely low. At mountain tops and on crater rims sunlight is nearly continuous, though not truly perpetual: The Moon does have seasons because of the 1.5 degree tilt of its polar axis from the ecliptic normal, and also sunlight is greatly reduced (though not totally extinguished, because of refraction through Earth’s atmosphere) for a few hours during a total lunar eclipse. Observations and topographic analysis show that the maximum percentage of surface illumination at any one place over the year is about 70 per cent; if two sites are considered there can be grazing sunlight more than 90 per cent of the time.

James D. Burke

Condition of Solar Radiation on the Moon

Introduction

Solar radiation is an exterior heat source of the Moon and represents a key resource with respect to returning to the Moon. It controls the variation of lunar-surface temperature during the lunation, and changes the thermal radiation properties of the lunar surface. In lunar Earth-based exploration, orbital exploration, and manned and unmanned lunar surface activities, solar radiation is an important factor which should be considered.

Xiongyao Li, Wen Yu, Shijie Wang, Shijie Li, Hong Tang, Yang Li, Yongchun Zheng, Kang T. Tsang, Ziyuan Ouyang

Photovoltaic Power Generation on the Moon: Problems and Prospects

Introduction

Photovoltaic power is important for the current and future Lunar space missions. Alternating fortnights of bright sunshine offers a clean and unlimited energy resource on the Moon. Apollo (Bates and Fang 2001) and Lunokhod (Torchynska and Polupan 2002) missions conducted earliest solar cell experiments on the lunar surface during the 1970’s. Space solar cell technology has significantly evolved during these forty years (Markvart and Castner 2003; Partain and Fraas 2010). Keeping in mind the recent renewed interest in lunar studies (Sridharan et al. 2010) the advantages and disadvantages of photovoltaic power generation on the Moon will be discussed in this chapter which is a modified version of our earlier paper (Girish and Aranya 2010).

T. E. Girish, S. Aranya

Fuel Cell Power System Options for Lunar Surface Exploration Applications

Introduction

The first fuel cell has been demonstrated by Sir William Grove in 1839. More than 170 years later, fuel cells are still considered an innovative and emerging technology, although they have already proven their possibilities and advantages in a considerable number of terrestrial demonstration and early commercial applications as well as a number of successful space missions flown since the 1960s.

Simon D. Fraser

Theory and Applications of Cooling Systems in Lunar Surface Exploration

Introduction

The thermal energy balance of any space mission element, whether it is a spacecraft, a permanent and crewed lunar base, or a space suit, is derived as a function of heat released by personnel and/or components installed within the outer shell and heat received from the surrounding environment.

Simon D. Fraser

Principles of Efficient Usage of Thermal Resources for Heating on Moon

Introduction

Understanding lunar surface and subsurface temperatures is critical for future human and robotic exploration (Paige 2010). The fact that the extreme thermal cycling on the Moon takes place over a 28 day cycle, with 14 days of intense sun and 14 days of dark cold, has important implications on the availability of power, operation feasibility and poses a variety of safety and reliability questions (Cohen 2002). Note that the Apollo missions all involved landings which took place in equatorial regions and were conducted during the lunar day. Future exploration is needed to cover a much wider range of latitudes (Paige 2010).

Viorel Badescu

Deployable Lunar Habitation Design

Introduction

Plans to return to the Moon and develop a sustainable human presence there continue to arise and change. In addition to the efforts of space agencies and governments, commercial spaceflight initiatives are taking part in future lunar exploration scenarios (cf. Lunar X-Prize).

S. Haeuplik-Meusburger, K. Ozdemir

Curing of Composite Materials for an Inflatable Construction on the Moon

Where Will We Live While on the Moon?

The Moon is the nearest celestial body to our Earth. Humans first visited the Moon in 1969. However, only short term stays have been possible. In order for long-term missions to be possible, large pressurized constructions are needed. The 15-20 m³ Altair habitat planned in the Constellation Program and the 6.65 m³ pressurized crew compartment volume realized in the Apollo program are insufficient. Hundreds of cubic meters per crew member are required for living area, working area, greenhouse with sufficient plants and animals for food, air and water recovery and storage. Projects discussing such large metal constructions delivered from Earth were proposed since the first flight on Moon. However, this method is not realistic: such large construction cannot be launched from Earth (too big mass and size), large construction cannot be landed on the Moon (too big inertia), building of large constructions on the Moon requires a long presence of workers (workers need pressurized cabins, life support system, water, and food that needs large construction to deliver and to keep it), delivering of separate blocks to one place with landing rockets (accuracy of landing of a few meters is too complicate, or it needs Moon’s tracks to collect all landed blocks). Therefore, a moon base should be constructed on the Moon itself.

Alexey Kondyurin

Natural Resources of the Moon and Legal Regulation

Introduction

Things may be considered as resources of some sort to the extent that they are perceived to have a beneficial potential. In this sense, a wide variety of phenomena may be regarded as resources. Hence, the category of natural resources of the Moon includes the unpolluted environment, for instance. A more limited concept of lunar natural resources would restrict them to mineral resources and other material substances that can be derived from the Moon. Humans have found a variety of such resources on the Moon that they are eager to exploit (technology permitting). There may still be also new resources to be found, such as minerals, energy sources, organic and non-organic substances. To avoid undue speculation on an already complicated issue, this chapter will concentrate on the legal regulation of human activities involving resources of the more traditional type, i.e., known resources relating directly to the soil of the Moon.

Lotta Viikari

The Property Status of Lunar Resources

Introduction - Water from the Moon

In 1993, Celine Dion released a song whose lyrics spoke of the seemingly impossible tasks of getting “water from the moon” in order to earn someone’s love. As late as two decades ago, Earth’s natural satellite was being viewed as the ultimate desert – a “vast, lonely, forbidding type of existence or expanse of nothing” and as a “magnificent desolation”, as described by its visitors Frank Borman and Buzz Aldrin (Chaikin 1994, pp. 121, 211). As years passed, the Moon turned, under the scrutinizing eyes of the scientists, from a presumed bone-dry desert into a watery treasure chest, capable of quenching the NewSpace entrepreneurs’ thirst for rocket fuel. The idea of orbital depots supplied with water extracted from the Moon became feasible, and companies were born, such as the Shackleton Energy Company, with an eye on mining the ice-water-rich Lunar south pole (Wall 2011).

Virgiliu Pop

Telecommunication and Navigation Services in Support of Lunar Exploration and Exploitation

Introduction

A structured approach to the design of Space Exploration Systems is fundamental to creating a coherent and sustainable global exploration effort. In fact an extensive robotic and human settlement on the Moon will be achieved only if suitable services will be provided in support of the lunar exploration and exploitation activities. This is even more valid when taking into account the fact that, settlements on the Moon will not be completely autonomous from Earth and therefore will rely on its support in terms of strategic resources and consumables.

Marco Cenzon, Dragoş Alexandru Păun

A Laser Power Beaming Architecture for Supplying Power to the Lunar Surface

Infrastructure Support to Lunar Commercial Activities

In order to undertake space exploration and utilization of the moon for resources, a complete commercial infrastructure must be in place. Too often only a single point of departure is taken to be the total rationale for the commercial undertaking. However, insofar as the potential lunar resources and energy requirements are concerned, a fully-functional infrastructure for maintaining a continuous flow of materials to and from the moon is essential. Otherwise single-point activities will have infrastructure costs that don’t permit profitability.

Henry W. Brandhorst Jr.

Building the First Lunar Base – Construction, Transport, Assembly

Introduction

Since the space age began less than 60 years ago, the exploration of our moon has been one of the prime goals of space technology and astronautics. If we decide to expand human civilization into space and to use the resources of the solar system, the establishment of a permanently occupied lunar base should be the first step. Prospecting and exploitation of lunar resources such as Helium-3 and scarce materials on a cost- effective basis could be a test bed for further space enterprises in the solar system up to moons of Jupiter. Among various possibilities of scientific research, such as geology, artificial ecosystems and human physiology and space medicine, the moon is an ideal location for optical, infra-red and radio astronomy. Last not least the effort to establish a lunar base would start a tremendous economic stimulus for terrestrial economies (ESA 2003).

Werner Grandl

Advanced Systems Concept for Autonomous Construction and Self-repair of Lunar Surface ISRU Structures

ISRU for Manned Space Exploration and Settlement

In-Situ Resource Utilization is viewed by most as the basis for a successful manned exploration and settlement of the solar system. It is as its name implies, the “living off the land” that is a necessity for any untethered manned activity. The goal of ISRU is to allow settlements on the Moon and Mars and beyond to live with minimal if any dependence on the shipment of raw materials from Earth. The existence of a broad spectrum of elements on the lunar surface and on Mars gives hope that in principle it is possible to build a sustainable infrastructure on both these bodies that is based on local resources.

H. Benaroya, S. Indyk, S. Mottaghi

Moon Dune – Bacillithic Cratertecture

Introduction

The potential for microbial life to adapt and evolve in environments beyond its planet of origin should be assessed. Little is currently known regarding the consequences when earthly microbial life is transported into space or to other planets, where the environment is very different from that of Earth. The findings from such studies will determine whether life on Earth is strictly a local planetary phenomenon or can expand its evolutionary trajectory beyond its place of origin (NASA 2003).

Magnus Larsson, Alex Kaiser

Fundamentals of Modern Lunar Management: Private Sector Considerations

Introduction

Implicit in any assessment of management practice in space, the moon or even Mars is that a good reason exists for people to be present. The case for a human presence in space is fairly limited from a commercial standpoint but there some interesting viewpoints as to its present and future potential (Morris and Cox 2010). Limited development of commercial tourism combined with equally limited commercial activity in orbit to date does not make a convincing case for business. The justification for lunar commerce is even less convincing. Dr. David Livingston, noted space expert and host of the Space Show at TheSpaceShow.com, is a good example of the significant business concerns related to lunar enterprises.

Mike H. Ryan, Ida Kutschera

Highlights of Solar System Development on the 200th Anniversary of Men on the Moon

Introduction

Since humans returned to the Moon, we went from being an outpost on a barren rock orbiting Earth to being a nascent civilization on the Moon and Mars, with outposts on dozens of asteroids, outer planets and their moons. We went from a population of under a dozen to one approaching 300,000 extraterrestrials.

Yerah Timoshenko

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