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2008 | Buch

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Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution

herausgegeben von: Abdulaziz H. Abuzinada, Hans-Jörg Barth, Friedhelm Krupp, Benno Böer, Thabit Zahran Al Abdessalaam

Verlag: Birkhäuser Basel

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik"

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Über dieses Buch

The countries of the Arabian Peninsula have undergone a remarkable process of development and social transformation. This has led to increased rates of transport, industrial development, and consumption of water, food, and goods, which in turn, led to significantly increased rates of environmental pollution. Regional conflicts have also taken their toll and contributed to environmental pollution. For example, the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill, the biggest known marine pollution event in human history, has occurred in the waters of the Gulf. Moreover, the Gulf is the busiest area in the world in view of maritime oil shipment, and one of the undesired consequences are frequently occurring oil spills, and their impacts on the marine and coastal ecosystems, as well as on the fishing and tourism industry. Wind often blows land-based rubbish towards the sea, and it normally accumulates in the inter-tidal zone; driftwood on the ocean’s surface, as well as all floating trash also eventually accumulates in the coastal zone. This has led for some beaches in the Gulf to be heavily polluted with garbage. Such a development is not only unsightly, but also prevents certain marine organisms, such as turtles, for example, from landing on the beach. It also contributes for waterfowl and other creatures to get entangled in plastic snares and ropes, and exposes them to a slow and painful death: starvation.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

Abstract

The Gulf is a semi-enclosed sea (total area 240,000 km²) situated in the subtropical high-pressure-zone and thus characterized by low precipitation and high aridity, resulting in evaporation rates above 2000 mm yr⁻¹ (Barth 1998). It is a shallow sedimentary basin, about 1000 km long and between 200 and 330 km wide. The average depth is presently 35 m with a generally eastward dipping seafloor. The deepest areas are in front of the Iranian coast, reaching from 60 m to about 100 m at the entrance to the Strait of Hormuz. Thus, the whole Gulf lies within the photic zone. The shoreline at the Arabian side displays a gradual slope with a wide intertidal zone, compared to the steep and narrow shoreline at the Iranian side where the Zagros mountains rise more than 2000 m. As a consequence of the gradual topography and of the favourable environment to carbonate producing biota, the Gulf is a strongly sedimentary province with a dominating soft substrate benthos. Sediments of biogenic carbonates - mostly foraminifera - exist over much of the Gulf floor (Sheppard et al. 1992). Highest carbonate concentrations are to be found in the shallow waters of the western and southern Gulf (Fig. 1). Within a depositional setting along the southern Gulf coast the offshore bank is progressively extending (Kendall et al. 2002). Terrestrial sediments are limited to the northwest where the waterway of the Shatt al Arab discharges into the Gulf, and the eastern Iranian shoreline where terrestrial fluvial sediments from the Zagros mountains occasionally are accumulated in the nearshore region. Offshore, underlying salt domes have forced upwards numerous islands and banks of hard substrate which are now colonized by corals.

Hans-Jörg Barth, Nuzrat Yar Khan

The coastal vegetation of the western and southern Gulf — characterisation and conservation aspects

Abstract

Although we have a superficial overview of the main plant communities of coastal areas of the western and southern Gulf, in-depth studies are generally lacking, with a few notable exceptions. Coastal vegetation in the region is often equated solely to halophytic communities growing under the direct influence of salt-water, in extreme cases only to mangroves, the latter which in fact account for only a very small percentage of the total coastal vegetation. This narrow perspective has important conservation repercussions, especially given the current mass destruction of many parts of the Gulf coastline. Important speciesrich communities (flora and fauna) are being destroyed at an alarming rate without any mitigation measures, and even high-profile ecosystems, such as mangroves, are by no means immune from the on-going development frenzy. An important step towards the protection and sustainable use of environmental resources is their detailed characterisation and inventory, as well as elucidating their spatial distribution. The aims of this contribution are therefore three-fold: 1) to give an overview of the coastal vegetation of the area (Gulf coastline of the GCC countries), examining both halophytic and non-halophytic communities; 2) to highlight the most critical issues affecting coastal vegetation; and 3) to suggest conservation priorities and associated research projects. It is clear that much more detailed work is required to identify and assess remaining intact stretches of the coastline regarding their vegetation, flora and fauna.

Gary Brown, Benno Böer, Sabitha Sakkir

Impact of oil pollution and increased sea surface temperatures on marine ecosystems and biota in the Gulf

Abstract

Preventing oil pollution is considered the major environmental challenge in the Gulf region. The effects of petroleum oil on key ecosystems and biota are reviewed, mainly based on research activities following the 1991 Gulf War oil spill. While the effects of oiling on birds were severe, with species losing up to an estimated 50% of their populations in the oiled areas, and the breeding success of other species severely reduced for several years following the spill, effects on sea turtles and marine mammals were minor. Planktonic fish eggs and larvae at or near the water surface were killed by oil slicks, resulting in lower levels of recruitment in 1992 and 1993. By 1994, fish population densities were back to pre-war levels. Subtidal biotopes, including coral reefs, escaped oil contamination and showed no adverse impacts from the oil spill. They were, however, severely effected by three major bleaching events in 1996, 1998 and 2002, with most inshore and shallow water offshore corals dying and hardly any signs of recovery until 2007. Thus far oil pollution has been perceived as the greatest single threat to marine ecosystems and wildlife. However, it is argued in this chapter that the long-term impacts of climate change are more severe. The coral bleaching events and the resulting ecological and socio-economic consequences triggered the development of a Regional Action Plan for Coral Reef Conservation, which takes an integrated remediation approach, addressing multiple stressors. It is suggested that this plan be embedded in a broader strategy of regional environmental management, by conducting a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and developing a Strategic Action Programme for the Gulf. There is an urgent need to develop national and regional oiled wildlife response plans throughout the Gulf region.

Friedhelm Krupp, Abdulaziz H. Abuzinada

Integrated management of pollution stress in the Gulf

Abstract

Rapid coastal development in the Gulf countries has caused considerable ecological stress and many coastal habitats have begun to show symptoms of ecological imbalance associated with multiple stressors caused by pollution and habitat destruction. Major sources of pollution in the Gulf include oil production, exploration, and transportation; and municipal and petrochemical industry effluents. Oil pollution, however, remains the major environmental issue in the Gulf. Reliable data on the distribution and background levels of pollutants in the Gulf are generally lacking and are patchy at best. Available information suggests that levels of hydrocarbons and heavy metal in the offshore areas are generally not alarming, but levels of pollutants in inshore areas have a number of “hot spots” associated with urban centres and industrial complexes. Although little information is available with respect to the levels of nutrients in the Gulf, there is some evidence of eutrophication in coastal areas where untreated or partially treated sewage is discharged. Levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are generally low, but show a decreasing north-south spatial trend. Being a low-energy, semi-enclosed sea with limited water exchange with the Indian Ocean, the Gulf ecosystem provides ideal conditions for particulate and pollutant deposition. However, precise prediction and validation of sediment and pollutant budgets, and pollutant transport is not possible because of a lack of reliable data on 1) the distribution of pollutants in various compartments of the Gulf ecosystem, 2) circulation in the northern Gulf for different winds and seasons, 3) over- the-water stress and energy fluxes, 4) accurate evaporation rates through direct measurements, and 5) a better understanding of the circulations in the Gulf of Oman, their seasonal and spatial variations, and the exchange of water with the strait of Hormuz and the Arabian Sea. In view of the complex, dynamic, and semienclosed nature of the Gulf ecosystem where ecological boundaries transcend arbitrary political boundaries, we conclude that an integrated ecosystem approach to managing the Gulf is an imperative for the Gulf nations. Its adoption in the true spirit of the Kuwait Convention would foster a common understanding of regional issues and a shared vision of the strategic importance of Gulf’s resources by the Gulf nations. This paper discusses the opportunities that need to be seized and the constraints that need to be dealt with in the application of the ecosystem approach on a Gulf-wide basis.

Nuzrat Yar Khan

Efforts of regional and international organisations in reducing levels of pollution in the Gulf

Abstract

There is a wide recognition throughout the region, as well as globally, of the importance of the Gulf in terms of its natural resources, including its diversity in plant and animal life. There is also recognition of the challenges that it faces in terms of the pressures placed on it by the extraction, processing and transport of oil and related products around and across its waters as well as other development activities taking place in the region’s coastal areas. To respond to these challenges, a number of international and regional organisations work within the Gulf to protect its waters and conserve its environment. The following chapter will focus on some of these, addressing the activities that they undertake within the region. The organisations included are the International Maritime Organisation, the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) and its Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), each of which has its own set of activities as well as a number of partnership activities throughout the region. Such partnerships can be further strengthened, providing a unified approach by the involved organisations, further encouraging the governments of the region, already doing much to tackle the needs of the coastal and marine environment, to focus their efforts in this regard. We already rely greatly on the wealth of the Gulf and its biodiversity and it is up to all of its users to ensure that this is preserved for future generations.

Habib N. El-Habr, Melanie Hutchinson

Oil pollution preparedness in the ROPME Sea Area

Abstract

ROPME/MEMAC comprises the eight member states Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and UAE. These countries share the ROPME Sea Area (RSA) and its rich marine resources. The Convention for the establishment of ROPME is the Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment (1979) and it’s Protocol which resulted in the establishment of MEMAC in 1982. The main objectives of MEMAC are: formation of the Regional Contingency Plan, provision of technical assistance to contracting states, report of marine pollution incidents, damage assessment and compensation action, transboundary movement of personnel equipment and materials in case of marine emergencies, exchange of technical information with the member states, assistance in laws and regulations and different international conventions, surveillance of ROPME Sea Area for marine pollution, trajectory modelling and training of national cadres of its member states as well as publication of relevant materials i.e. the “Marine Environment Protection Legislation” which provides legal information of its Member States.

Abdul Munem Mohamed Al-Janahi

Remote Sensing: A tool for managing marine pollution in the Gulf

Abstract

Increasing concern about levels of pollution in the marine environment has led to the adoption of a number of preventative measures to assist in maintaining the quality of the world’s oceans. Remote sensing technology is useful for detecting and monitoring marine based pollution, and the recent development of new sensors and software applications have transformed remote sensing into a powerful tool for use in monitoring marine water quality. This chapter identifies the application of remote sensing in detecting and monitoring marine pollution and discusses the different sensors, particularly those applicable to oil related pollution and other important water quality parameters in the Gulf’s marine environment.

Ronald A. Loughland, Baby Saji

Coastal pollution in Bahrain and its management

Abstract

The coastline and the marine environment of Bahrain are important and unexpendable to the Bahraini people. In addition to supporting the country’s economy as most developments lie along the coastal areas, it supports a range of marine organisms that are important components of a wider ecosystem. This contribution highlights the major sources of marine pollution along the coast of Bahrain as well as the current pollution control measures. Oil pollution, apart from industrial activities, has also been related to transportation and military action in the Gulf during the hostilities of 1983, 1991 and 2003. Laws and regulations do exist in order to protect the environment but they need to be further developed and strengthened. Pollution monitoring and control are currently inadequate in the rapidly developing Kingdom. Contingency plans to prevent, remedy and ameliorate negative impact from oil spills are available but they need to be improved. Generally future activities in the Kingdom of Bahrain have to focus on the establishment of an integrated coastal zone management plan.

Khadija Zainal, Hashim Al-Sayed, Ismail Al-Madany

Pollution from sea based sources

Abstract

The body of water referred to as the Gulf, with its surrounding land mass, is widely regarded as the pre-eminent world source of the energy supplied in the form of oil and gas, 90% of which is transported by sea. In this capacity, it stands at risk of being seriously damaged as a result of the activities of ships and of onshore and offshore oil, gas and chemical processing and loading facilities. As a unique semi-enclosed body of shallow water surrounded by some of the most intense industrial and developmental activity in the world, it is inevitably at great risk from both land-based and sea-based impacts. This chapter gives an overview of the marine activities most often considered to be responsible for pollution in the Gulf, and at the instruments available, through the International Maritime Organization, in particular, to reduce the potential impact of marine pollution on Gulf waters.

Roy Facey

Impacts of seawater desalination plants on the marine environment of the Gulf

Abstract

Many coastal areas in the Gulf experience a rapid industrial and urban growth. This development is sustained by an increasing number of seawater desalination plants in the region which satisfy the growing demand for fresh water. The combined seawater desalination capacity in the Gulf countries exceeds 11 million cubic metres per day and accounts for 45% of the total world capacity. The predominating process is multi-stage flash distillation (MSF), whereas only a minor amount of the drinking water is produced by reverse osmosis (RO) plants and other processes (together < 15%). Due to their waste water discharges to the sea, desalination plants - and especially MSF plants - must be considered a main source of pollution in the Gulf. It is estimated that the combined discharge of all MSF plants in the Gulf amounts to a waste water flow of about 1,000 m³ per second - which is the equivalent of a major river. This waste water is characterised by increased salinity and elevated temperature. It additionally contains substantial amounts of chemical pollutants, such as chlorine (which is used for biofouling control in the plants), antiscalants (which are used for scale inhibition) and heavy metals (which are present due to corrosion). This paper gives an overview on the waste water characteristics of the two main desalination processes (MSF, RO), presents estimates of total chemical discharges to the Gulf for two selected pollutants (chlorine, copper) and discusses the potential impacts of seawater desalination activity on the Gulf’s marine environment.

Sabine Lattemann, Thomas Höpner

Importance of the freshwater influx from the Shatt-Al-Arab River on the Gulf marine environment

Abstract

In the northern Gulf, the main source of freshwater is the Shatt Al-Arab River, which is formed by the confluence of Euphrates, Tigris and Karun Rivers. The river and its associated marshes present potential sources of nutrients, organics and pollutants (e.g., hydrocarbons, trace elements, and pesticides) to the Gulf. The importance of the Shatt Al-Arab on the northern Gulf ecosystem is undisputed. This chapter outlines the significance of the freshwater influx to the health of the Gulf ecosystem. However, ongoing and planned river basin modifications in upstream countries will have adverse impacts on the coastal marine environments. Since reliable recent discharge data are not available it is essential to establish immediately a monitoring system (for measuring river discharge and water quality) and in order to assess the current situation as well as expected future impacts on the aquatic environments. The environmental issues of the region have to be discussed and resolved at local, regional and international levels.

Faiza Al-Yamani

The compensation schedule approach for the assessment of oil spill damages to marine resources of the RSA

Abstract

Several oil spills have occurred in UAE waters, but the assessment of oil spill damages has proved as problematic here as elsewhere. We offer a compensation schedule approach to overcome potential difficulties in damages assessment and examine several scenarios in which the schedule approach might be useful. An oil spill damages assessment generally has four steps: 1) identify the resources at risk, 2) demonstrate injury to resources, 3) determine the extent of any injury in space and time, and 4) estimate the economic value or damages associated with the injury. There are technical and other difficulties at each stage. Compensation schedules have been developed to address translation of oil contamination and resource exposure and injuries into economic damages when information is incomplete or can not be obtained without inordinate effort. Information on the amount and type of oil spilled, the amount of oil recovered, the season, the habitats oiled, the resources exposed, and the value and sensitivity of the resources is used in the schedule to establish the economic value losses associated with the spill. We believe that an oil spill compensation schedule developed in more detail for the ROPME Sea Area would enable rapid calculation of damages without large or time-consuming studies. A developed schedule is more likely to be used, and its more frequent and widespread use would enhance its value as a deterrent to less than full attention to oil spill prevention.

Saif M. Al-Ghais, Walter H. Pearson

The impact of the Gulf War (1990 – 91) oil release upon the intertidal Gulf coast line of Saudi Arabia and subsequent recovery

Abstract

The 1991 Gulf War oil release was over three times greater than any other oil spill in the world and left an estimated 0.9–1.9 million barrels of oil deposited intertidally on Saudi Arabian shores. Surveys conducted by Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME, former MEPA) and other scientific groups confirmed that all intertidal habitats were impacted, with those on the high shore particularly effected, as the oil came ashore on equinoctial spring tides. However, despite predictions of total community collapse, individual habitats could still be recognised on the basis of surviving biota. Long term monitoring of biotic recovery (1991 – 95) based on 10 transects predicted recovery times to be similar to those reported for oil spills elsewhere in the world. However, further extensive surveys in 2002–2003 found large volumes of buried oil trapped under sand on beaches and under microbial mats in salt marshes together with tarcrete pavements. These surveys revealed that 64% of mangroves, 70% of salt marshes, 88% of tidal flats, 90% of sand beaches and 90% of rocky shores remained impacted with lower diversity than that found on none oil polluted control shores. As a result predicted recovery times were revised and extended to over a century for habitats such as marshes without tidal flushing. In 2005 funding was awarded for remediation by the United Nations Compensation Commission.

David Alan Jones, Miles Hayes, Friedhelm Krupp, Gino Sabatini, Iain Watt, Lee Weishar

Rapid assessment indicators of oil spill recovery in salt marsh ecosystems

Abstract

The second Gulf War (1991) led to the largest oil spill in human history. Over 770 km of coastline from southern Kuwait to Abu Ali Island (Saudi Arabia) were smothered with oil and tar, erasing most of the local plant and animal communities. Salt marshes were most severely hit of the different coastal ecosystem types along the Saudi Arabian coast and are far from being completely restored fifteen years later. Continuous monitoring from 1996 until 2006 by the author as well as Höpner, Jones, Weishar (2008, all this volume) and several others in the period before (Krupp et al. 1996), revealed the dominant processes of natural regeneration which are characterized by different types of indicators. These are 1) the composition of hydrocarbon compounds remaining in the soil, 2) the hardness of the soil surface, 3) microclimate 4) the abundance of laminated cyanobacteria mats, 5) the abundance and diversity of macrofauna, and 6) vegetation. These indicators are briefly presented, as well as some consequences considering future oil spill events and salt marsh restoration.

Hans-Jörg Barth

Shoreline bioremediation after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill

Abstract

In June 1991, after the Gulf War oil spill of February/March 1991, a long-term study was initiated to observe the shoreline remediation. This chapter summarizes the development of 22 locations within the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary (Saudi Arabia) until 2007. At that time only six stations displayed complete remediation. At two stations the condition was as desperate as in 1991, the other ones had reached an intermediate state of a remediation. Some stations run for a limited time through a cyanobacteria-dominated intermediate state, and in one case a return from a cyanobacteria- to a crab-dominated one started only between 2001 and 2007. Regarding the whole study area, even after fifteen years the remediation was by no means complete.

Thomas Höpner, Khalid Ali Al-Shaikh

Evaluation of arid salt marsh restoration techniques

Abstract

The 1991 Gulf War resulted in the deliberate release of unprecedented quantities of oil into the Gulf. The degradation of over 750 km of shoreline and adjacent wetlands within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was the consequence. The beaches, tide flats, lagoons, rocky shores, and salt marshes along the Kingdom’s Gulf shoreline remain severely more than a decade after the oil release. As part of the Remediation Technology Assessment Project (RTA) (Weishar et al. 2004) the applicability of various remediation technologies on salt marsh ecosystems was evaluated. A demonstration restoration project was designed to restore an arid salt marsh after collecting and assessing baseline biological, chemical, and sediment data. The most effective restoration included removal of surface tarcrete/oil impregnated microbial mats, construction of new tidal channels, and transplantation of native species.

Lee Weishar, Ian Watt, David A. Jones, David Aubrey

Backmatter

Titel: Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution
herausgegeben von: Abdulaziz H. Abuzinada
Hans-Jörg Barth
Friedhelm Krupp
Benno Böer
Thabit Zahran Al Abdessalaam
Verlag: Birkhäuser Basel
Electronic ISBN: 978-3-7643-7947-6
Print ISBN: 978-3-7643-7946-9
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-7947-6