Mountain Hazards and Disaster Risk Reduction

Uttarkashi, a town in Uttarakhand Himalaya, India, experienced massive flow of rock mass debris due to landslide of Varunavat Parvat on 24th September, 2003. The landslide was caused by two major earthquakes in the area and triggered by incessant rains during the period. Post-landslide remedial measures included several geological and geotechnical aspects like surveying, geological and structural mapping, and demarcation of lineaments/faults by visual interpretation of IRS LISS II, followed by geo-mechanical testing of overburden mass, slope stability analysis, monitoring of slope movement by Automatic Target Recognition. The slope stabilization measures included re-profiling by benching, drainage of seepage water through weep holes and interconnected drains, placing of retaining walls, barricading and application of cable anchors, rock bolts, shortcrete wiremesh, geotextile, geogrids and bio-restoration. Stability analysis using numerical modeling was conducted to evaluate the performance of supports provided in the slope. Model without supports revealed that the maximum displacement of 0.255 m occurred in re-profiled slope soil mass below EL 1,630 m. The factor of safety (FOS) was found to be 0.98–4.5 in this region, indicating presence of weak zone at 20–30 m inside the soil mass. Application of support system reduced displacements by an average of 53 % throughout the slope profile. The entire slope face was found to have FOS value above five indicating no failure along the surface. The studies established that application of support system along with re-profiling of failed slopes and other water drainage works have resulted in Varunavat Parvat being safe with regards to long term stability.

This chapter focuses on the causes and socio-economic aspects of floods in the Hindu Kush region. In this chapter a special attempt has been made on the causes and impacts of super flood-2010. Hindu Kush is a high mountain system located in the immediate west of Karakorum and Himalayas. It is the greatest watersheds of Kabul, Swat, Panjkora, Chitral rivers in Pakistan and Afghanistan and Amu River in Central Asia and Afghanistan. There are several peaks acceding heights of 6,500 m a.s.l and therefore, it is a nourishment place of numerous glaciers and glacier milk. Hindu Kush region is vulnerable to frequently occurring hazards of floods, earthquake and landsliding. However, flood is a deadliest and recurrently occurring disaster. It is jointly caused by both physical and human intensifying factors. However, it is further intensified by the impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, the unusual heavy and prolonged rainfall and heavy melting of snow, ice and glaciers have been blamed as a major cause of floods. In the upper reaches, the flash flood characteristics dominate, while in the lower river floods governs the scene. In the upstream areas, flash floods are sudden and more destructive in nature. As a consequence such floods have incurred damages to sources of livelihood earnings, infrastructure and even human casualties. However, the flood-2010 has caused more than 400 fatalities in the Hindu Kush region and therefore considered as the century worst flood.

Geomorphologic hazards in the Hindu Kush regions have been evolved due to the combined effect of tectonic settings, topographical variation, weak geological conditions, intense seasonal precipitation and the changes in climatic conditions. The underlying risk has been further intensified by human interference that arises either due to poverty, poor policy or weakness in implementing the policies. Tectonic setting of the Hindu Kush region has been originated due to the collision between southern Indian plate and northern Eurasian plate. The Himalayan Orogeny is thus developed and consequently earthquake hazard is evolved which is unavoidable. Weak geological conditions, diversified rock types, high degree of weathering in rocks and rock deformations all have contributed to most of the geomorphologic hazards. High gradient of rivers and extreme monsoon precipitation indicate that the upstream and downstream of major river basins are strongly interrelated and the risk of hazards like landslides, floods and debris flows in the upstream pose serious threat to the downstream flood as well. The impact of climate change, high rate of temperature rise and extreme rainfall events has exacerbated the landslide, flood, debris flow and Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) hazards. At least one GLOF event was recorded in Himalayan region between every 3–10 years. All these hazards shape the landscape of the region and create severe problems on water resources as well as other development projects. These hazards have worst impact to people and livelihood by destroying their environment for living and production, thereby seriously affecting social and economic development. This chapter analyzes the major triggers of the geomorphologic hazards in HK regions with the scientific facts and figures.

Because of its location in the active plate boundary zone, in the last century, Himalaya witnessed eight lethal earthquakes that killed more than 46,845 causing hefty environmental costs in the form of loss of property and rehabilitation works. The first decade of twenty-first century became most unfortunate as the earthquake of magnitude 7.4 hit the Kashmir region of Pakistan killing at least 73,338 people leaving 51,28,309 affected. This single event caused economic loss of US$5.2 billion. These data have clearly pointed out the vulnerability level of the region and inadequacy of preparedness programme to mitigate earthquake disaster risk. Recurrence of such event in the area having soft sediment geology (e.g. fluvio-lacustrine deposits) would have even catastrophic devastation in the form of human causalities, structural damage and environmental degradation because soft sediments usually amplify the energy of the seismic waves. In this context, good amount of works has been carried out in the Himalayan region to understand the level of seismic hazard. However, there are limited works on seismic site response analysis of the soft sediments, which is a key to assess the intensity of ground deformation and structural damages. Therefore, in this contribution, first, a brief review on seismo-tectonics, paleoseismoloy, earthquake genesis, and active tectonics is presented; second, one-dimensional seismic site response analysis in the southern part of Kathmandu valley is presented to understand the seismic behaviour of the fluvio-lacustrine deposits in the intermontane basin. The results show variation of peak spectral acceleration from 1.27 to 1.28 g, which is usually a high value for the study area. On the other hand, amplification factor ranges from 1.908 to 7.788, which is similar to the Mexico earthquake (1985) that caused massive destruction in similar sediments of the Mexico City. The high amplification values are estimated mainly in densely populated urban areas of the valley. The obtained results show good correlation with the damage pattern of 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake indicating that the amplification of the ground motion would be the main culprit during the impending great earthquake in an already indentified “Central Seismic Gap”. An integrated approach comprising of paleoseismological studies, seismic microzonation, deployment of earthquake early warning system, development and enforcement of site specific building code, insurance policy along with preparedness directed awareness programs could be key measures in reducing earthquake risk in rapidly urbanizing intermontane basins.

The Hindu Kush-Himalayan (HKH) region is rich in natural resources such as plenty of water, biodiversity, unique landscape, steep heights and deep gorges. Although, the region is very rich in biodiversity, food and energy etc., more than 40 % of the world’s poor live in this region. Currently, it is in the extreme risk due to the adverse effect caused by climate change. According to the report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) the global temperature increased by 0.74 °C during the last century and the global average surface temperature is projected to be raised by 1.1–6.4 °C by the end of the twenty-first century. This temperature increasing trend is even higher in this region than the global average. Thus, the changing environment eventually has an adverse effect on the livelihoods of the mountain people of the HKH region and increases their economic and environmental vulnerability. Rapidly growing population, randomly developed infrastructure, poor management and limited investment in conservation of natural resources have led to degradation in resources and decreased in agricultural productivity. Thus, climate change affects all the sectors of the economy. Among them, green economy, i.e. agriculture, is one that is going to be affected badly in the near future, which may lead to a serious threat to food security in the region. Similarly, depletion of natural resources as a result of increased environmental and demographic pressure, tends to worsen the severity of climate change impacts.

The Himalayan range by virtue of geo-climatic conditions is vulnerable to multiple hazards like earthquake, landslide, mudflow, debris flow, cloudburst, flash floods etc. The Himalayan ecosphere is made up of complex eco-systems. Because of the climate variability and anthropogenic activities the fragile ecosystem, especially watersheds in the Himalayan eco-system are widely affected. The land use and land cover changes in Uttarakhand affected substantially on environment and eco system of the Himalayan state. In Uttarakhand, a chaotic process of “development” that goes back many years exacerbated the effects of extreme weathers. Extensive deforestation of mountain tracts by the state and more recently due to “development” projects led to soil erosion and water run-off, thus destabilizing mountain slopes and contributing to more intense and frequent landslides and floods. In addition unchecked hill tourism has resulted in the huge growth of vehicular traffic, spread of roads not suitable to this mountainous terrain, and the construction of poorly designed and unregulated hotels and structures, many near rivers.

Uttarakhand has just 14 % of the total land under cultivation and about 65 % of population depends on agriculture for their livelihood. As furnished in the India State of Forest Report 2011 by Forest Survey of India (Government of India), out of total reported area, about 14 % is under cultivation and more than 55 % of the cultivated land in the state is rainfed. The landholdings are small and scattered. The region also suffers on account of heavy soil erosion and significantly lower yields as compared to the national average.

The present study will review the overall status of the land use and land cover pattern and its impact on the environmental degradation in Uttarakhand, India. The review will also reveal the primary indicators for climate degradation and due to the change in land use and land cover. The brief account of the state on land use and land cover changes will describe the causes of destabilization of fragile ecosystem and threatened biodiversity. Under these present circumstances, the major challenges before the state is to achieve economic prosperity without losing out on its biodiversity.

The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region is environmentally stressed, economically under-developed and highly prone to climate change impacts and natural hazards. The region is affected by increasing frequency and intensity of flash flood and river-line flood which are among the most devastating types of hazard as they occur rapidly with little lead time for warning, and transport tremendous amounts of water and debris at high velocity.

The HKH region, which is a fragile geology, is now facing increasing and intense pressure of the built environment in the process of inevitable and unstoppable economic development. It is increasingly evident that development processes create a built environment that interacts with nature and, therefore, with natural hazards. When development pursuits ignore this reality and fail to create a harmony between built-in and natural environment systems, they become responsible for turning natural hazards into disasters. Natural environmental systems can decrease or increase climate induced disasters depending on how development policies and practices treat the environment. There is a need for an ecologically compatible and socially acceptable framework of site-specific developmental models to ensure future risk reduction. In this backdrop, this chapter discusses the issues of environmental risk management and ecosystem adaptation with their inter-linkages with disaster risk reduction in the Hindu Kush Himalayan mountain region.

The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) mountains are known as the water towers of Asia and are the source of the ten major rivers that feed the river basins in plains below. These rivers do not understand political boundaries and traverse many countries on their way to the sea. However, national policies, institutions and regional arrangements (or lack thereof) can determine the positive or negative impacts of these rivers on the communities living in the river basins of the HKH. Several research studies argue that the absence of a robust regional cooperation framework, lack of international legal and policy instruments, and lack of an integrated institutional approach to river basin management are limiting the capacity of the countries of the HKH to optimise the benefits from this vast resource on a basin scale and exacerbating disaster risks. These limitations are also contributing to the high prevalence of poverty and food insecurity in the populated areas of the river basins. The problem has worsened with climate change, which has led to more extreme weather events such as floods and droughts, threatening the lives and livelihoods of the people living in the mountains and plains. This chapter looks at the disaster risk management (DRM) policies and institutional framework of the countries in the HKH region. It examines the status of policy implementation and the macro-level national institutions mandated to implement DRM policies and their effectiveness. It also discusses the role of international drivers, such as the Hyogo Framework for Action and Millennium Development Goals, in the formation of policies.

India has been experiencing increasing incidents of hydro-meteorological disasters that defy trends. Flash Flood in 2010 in the arid Ladakh region of North India’s Himalayan belt underlined the impending climate and disaster threats in fragile ecosystems. Mainstreaming of Climate Change Adaptation and its linking with DRR remains fragmented while the National Disaster Management Policy professes mainstreaming of DRR. Looking at diverse disciplines of cross-national breadth, this chapter examines inter-linkages between communities’ indigenous knowledge and practices and scientific techniques to develop resilience to climate change effects. The study is based on a research project ‘Ability of Local Multi-Stakeholder Action to Catalyze shifts in Program and Policy Environment towards mainstreaming DRR CCA,’ funded by Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN) along with global change SysTem for Analysis, Research and Training (START) and implemented by SEEDS, Kyoto University and local partners. The chapter argues that the rapid development of scientific techniques and increasing urbanization inclinations challenge traditional practices and common people’s pace of adaptation. Based on an in-depth perception survey of 200 HHs and evaluating different parameters through a bi-variate tool, the chapter explores ability of multi-stakeholder action to influence policy formulation. The study presents analysis and findings, pinpointing common solutions that can address local people’s needs and also fulfill required technical development for the common good.

Living close to nature, Ladakhi’s have maintained a harmonious balance with their surrounding. High aridity and low temperature lead to sparse vegetation. Ladakhi farmers have always been dependent on snow and glacier melt water, but the climate change experienced in the last four decades poses a threat for the future. There are different engineering solutions as integral part of water shed management: diversion canal, water reservoir, gravity canal, lift irrigation scheme, and snow harvesting. Only 10–15 % of Ladakhi agriculture benefits from the Indus and Shayok, while the remaining is entirely dependent on snowmelt streams and traditional water management systems of the watershed areas in the cold desert of Ladakh. The system of water distribution during the farming season is strictly followed by the people in their respective villages. Artificial glacier technique is used in the area from 1987. The main stream water is diverted by constructing a long channel made of dry stonewall across the hill slopes to the glacier site. The length, breadth and depth of the channel vary with the slope of the hill as well as an estimated flow of the stream. Dry stone retaining walls and a suitable bed grade to smoothen the follow of water protect the channel from damage. The stone wall is made of locally available stone and a mix of organic manure and soft soil. The technology of the artificial glacier has been in operation in the area for 15 years and is performing successfully.

The Uttarakhand Himalaya is susceptible to landslides due to various causes including its physiographic conditions, adverse geological setting, heavy to very heavy precipitation, intense seismic shaking, rapid glacial melting, inadequate drainage and severe toe erosion, deforestation, unscientific mining, ill-construction and improper land use etc. Several of these landslides have resulted in loss of human lives, livestock, livelihood and damages to buildings, infrastructure, utilities and services. The chapter briefly discusses about some of these socio-economically significant landslides from Uttarakhand Himalaya along with their consequences and lessons learnt. The socio-economically significant landslides have been defined as those landslides that resulted in loss of human lives or heavy economic damages/losses beyond the coping capacity of the affected community.

Uttarakhand Himalaya is also prone to earthquakes and lies in seismic zone V and IV. The area was affected by two major earthquakes during the years 1991 and 1999 that caused numerous landslides. But the present chapter focuses mainly on the water related landslides that are more frequent and widespread in this area. An attempt has been made to enlist most of the important landslide events in tabular form along with their location, date/month/year of occurrence and impacts. Seventy-eight landslide events have been reported between the year 1800 and 2011. But the chapter briefly discusses a few events to highlight the consequences and lessons learnt from the past landslides in Uttarakhand Himalaya. These landslides include Sher-ka-Danda Landslide (1880) in Nainital, Kaliasaur Landslide (1920 onwards), Alaknanda Tragedy (1970), Malpa landslide (1998), Bheti Paunder Landslide (1998), Phata Landslide (2001), La Jhekla Landslide (2009), and Kapkot Landslide (2010).

The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region is extremely vulnerable and prone to various types of disasters that cause widespread damage to the life and properties. Past experience indicates that women and children are the most vulnerable to disasters mainly due to deeply rooted traditional social norms, gender roles, and gender differential access to and control over information and resources that enable them to prepare for and cope with disasters. Women are typically more vulnerable than men to the effects of natural disasters and climate change, not only because of biological and physiological differences, but also, notably, because of socioeconomic differences and inequitable power relations.

To have disaster resilience communities, the participation of both men and women at various levels is essential. Inequalities that exist in society are often strengthened during disaster, and this must be kept in mind when collecting data, analyzing and formulating disaster resilience plans and activities. In this context, this paper provides an overview of gender differential impacts and vulnerabilities of climate change in the HKH region. Using a select case stories and literature review, the chapter highlights gender differential vulnerability to the adverse effects of climate change and resilience and different adaptation approaches in the high mountains, middle hills and river basins of the HKH region. This chapter looks at the gender, social and cultural dimensions of resilience. While analyzing the role played by women in various facets of disaster risk management, this paper also provides guidelines and framework for strengthening gender equal role and access to decision making in disaster risk management at various levels in the HKH region. Documenting such knowledge and good practices would ultimately help further to disseminate, targeting to planners, policy makers, development practitioners, and other key stakeholders working in HKH region and beyond.

Koshi is a trans-boundary river that flows in China, Nepal and India. The river originates from Tibet in China and flows through Nepal and India covering 87,481 km² area and provides livelihoods for almost 40 million people, most of who depend on subsistence agriculture. The river is also a major source of sorrow for downstream population of Nepal and India due to occasional catastrophic flooding and intense flow of debris. The three countries through which the river passes have their own policies that may be adequate in compartment, but lack in integrated approach and therefore unable to optimize on this vast resource on a basin scale and unable to develop integrated plan to fight with water related hazards. These limitations are leading to high prevalence of poverty and food insecurity in the populated areas of the basin in these three countries. The on-going impact of climate change has further worsened the problem due to more extreme weather events like frequent flood and drought hazards in the basin which ultimately threatened the livelihood options of the Koshi dwellers. In the context of trans-boundary basin, a policy adopted by the upstream could generate either positive or negative externality to the downstream and there is a policy vacuum in the context of whole basin.

In this backdrop, this chapter discusses, national and regional policies, institutional frameworks, bi-lateral and multi-lateral arrangements as main drivers in addressing or failing to address the issues of disaster risk and livelihood vulnerabilities of communities living in the Kosi basin. This chapter calls for a better understanding and analysis of water, climate change, agricultural and disaster risk reduction policies related institutional frameworks is essential so that a comprehensive and coordinated institutional approach to optimize the basin’s natural resources, reduction in hazard impacts and overall livelihood improvement can be achieved. This chapter also calls for effective management and regional cooperation in the Koshi river basin through continuous dialogue and for just water resource sharing among the riparian countries.

Disasters are not constrained by political boundaries. Most of the natural hazards in Asia are regional in nature. The geological, hydrometeorological, climatic or anthropogenic factors that cause these hazards transcend the political boundaries and can affect several countries simultaneously. The Indian Ocean Tsunami affected as many as eight countries in South and South East Asia. The South Asian earthquake of October 2005 damaged life and property in Pakistan and India. The typhoons that hit the Pacific islands each year affect a number of island countries at the same time. The Koshi river floods devastate parts of Nepal and India every monsoon and the Ganges floods maroon villages in India and Bangladesh. Similarly, when the Indus river floods it affects both Afghanistan and Pakistan and when the Brahmaputra floods it affects both China and India. Prevention, mitigation and resilience to transboundary catastrophes require strong bilateral and regional vision, cooperation and maturity. Past bilateral approaches show that the absence of l regional and multilateral integrated management frameworks poses difficulties for international and regional cooperation in disaster risk management. The Hyogo Framework for Action emphasises the importance of regional cooperation for disaster risk reduction (DRR). Accordingly, this chapter analyses the role of regional and international relations in triggering and reducing hazard and climatic risks, discusses relevant policy, political and institutional frameworks for international, regional and bilateral cooperation for DRR and provides practical guidelines to assist national governance systems to strengthen bilateral and regional approaches to DRR in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region.