Skip to main content

Learning to Self-Perfect: Chinese Beliefs about Learning

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Revisiting The Chinese Learner

Part of the book series: CERC Studies in Comparative Education ((CERC,volume 25))

Abstract

Learning is said to be the most remarkable human capacity (Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1999). Humans have the capacity to learn necessary survival skills, achieve social and emotional understanding, obtain knowledge of the universe, and, perhaps most important of all, acquire culture. Humans are thus products of their own learning and are the carriers of the entire human cultural heritage. There is little wonder why human learning has been, since Greek antiquity, the focus of serious thinkers and scholarly endeavor in fields ranging from philosophy, modern psychology, and neuroscience to the ever-expanding realm of education.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Au, T. K. F., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1986). The effects of perceived parental expectations on Chinese children's mathematics performance. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 32, 383–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brickman, P., & Bulman, R. J. (1977). Pleasure and pain in social comparison. In J. M. Suls & R. L. Miller (Eds.), Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives (pp. 149–186). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruner, J. S. (1986). Value presupposition of developmental theory. In L. Cirillo & S. Wapner (Eds.), Value presuppositions in theories of human development (pp. 19–28). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cai, J. F., & Cifarelli, V. (2004). Thinking mathematically by Chinese Learners: A cross-national comparative perspective. In L. H. Fan, N. Y. Wong, J. F. Cai & S. Q. Li (Eds.), How Chinese learn mathematics: Perspectives from insiders (pp. 71–106). Singapore: World Scientific.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, C., & Stevenson, H. W. (1989). Homework: A cross-cultural examination. Child Development, 60, 551–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, K. M. (1996). The quality of primary education: A case study of Zhejiang Province, China. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corno, L. (2004). Work habits and work styles: Volition in education. Teachers College Record, 106, 1669–1694.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Covington, M. V. (1992). Making the grade. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Rathunde, K. (1998). The development of the person: An experiential perspective on the ontogenesis of psychological complexity. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology. Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 635–684). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlin, B., & Watkins, D. A. (2000). The role of repetition in the processes of memorizing and understanding: A comparison of the views of Western and Chinese secondary school students in Hong Kong. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 65–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D'Andrade, R. G. (1992). Schemas and motivation. In R. G. D'Andrade & C. Strauss (Eds.), Human motives and cultural models (pp. 23–44). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • D'Andrade, R. G. (1995). The development of cognitive anthropology. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Bary, W. T. (1983). The liberal tradition in China. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, J., & Paulhus, D. L. (1998, August). Varieties of shyness in Asian-and European-Canadians. Paper presented at the 106th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C. S., & Heckhausen, J. (Eds.). (1998). Motivation and self-regulation across the life span. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fink, R. P. (1998). Literacy development in successful men and women with dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 48, 311–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fung, H. (1999). Becoming a moral child: The socialization of shame among young Chinese children. Ethos, 27, 180–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fung, H., & Chen, E. C. H. (2001). Across time and beyond skin: Self and transgression in the everyday socialization of shame among Taiwanese preschool children. Social Development, 10, 420–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, L., & Watkins, D. A. (2001). Identifying and assessing the conceptions of teaching of secondary school physics teachers in China. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 443–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harkness, S., & Super, C. M. (1999). From parents' cultural belief systems to behavior: Implications for the development of early intervention programs. In L. Eldering & P. Leseman (Eds.), Effective early education: Cross-cultural perspectives. New York: Falmer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harmon, M., Smith, T. A., Martin, M. O., Kelly, D. L., Beaton, A. E., Mullis, I. V. S., et al. (1997). Performance assessment in IEA's Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College, Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Education Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hau, K. T., & Salili, F. (1991). Structure and semantic differential placement of specific causes: Academic causal attributions by Chinese students in Hong Kong. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 175–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hess, R. D., & Azuma, M. (1991). Cultural support for schooling: Contrasts between Japan and the United States. Educational Researcher, 20(9), 2–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, B. K., & Pintrich, P. R. (2001). Personal epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holloway, S. D. (1988). Concepts of ability and effort in Japan and the US. Review of Educational Research, 58, 327–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, K. K. (2005). The foundation of research methodology for indigenous psychology. In K. S. Yang, K. K. Hwang & C. F. Yang (Eds.), Chinese indigenous psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 57–79). [in Chinese]. Taipei, Taiwan: Yuan Liu Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inagaki, K., Hatano, G., & Morita, E. (1998). Construction of mathematical knowledge through whole-class discussion. Learning and Instruction, 8, 503–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishisada, M. (1974). The civil service examination: China's examination hell. Chinese Education, 7(1), 1–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (1999). Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 349–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jin, L., & Cortazzi, M. (1998). Dimensions of dialogue: Large classes in China. International Journal of Educational Research, 29, 739–761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keats, D. (1982). Cultural bases of concepts of intelligence: A Chinese versus Australian comparison. Proceedings of Second Asian Workshop on Child and Adolescent Development (pp. 67–75). Bangkok, Thailand: Behavioral Science Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. S. (2002). We talk, therefore we think? A Cultural analysis of the effect of talking on thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 828–842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. S., & Markus, H. R. (2002). Freedom of speech and freedom of silence: An analysis of talking as a cultural practice. In R. Shweder, M. Minow & H. R. Markus (Eds.), Engaging cultural differences: The multicultural challenge in liberal democracies (pp. 432–452). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, U. (1997). Asian collectivism: An indigenous perspective. In H. Ka<$$$>(MS PAGE NO 13)e & D. Sinha (Eds.), Asian perspectives on psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 147–163). New Delhi, India: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, M. H., & McPartland, T. S. (1954). An empirical investigation of self-attitudes. American Sociological Review, 19, 68–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kwok, D. C., & Lytton, H. (1996). Perceptions of mathematics ability versus actual mathematics performance: Canadian and Hong Kong Chinese children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 209–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese Learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese Learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 25–41). Hong Kong/Melbourne: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong/Australian Council for Educational Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, C. C. (1995). Educating hearts and minds: Reflections on Japanese preschool and elementary education. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, J. (2001). Chinese conceptualization of learning. Ethos, 29, 111–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J. (2002a). A cultural model of learning: Chinese “heart and mind for wanting to learn. ” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 248–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J. (2002b). Models of learning in different cultures. In J. Bempechat & J. Elliott (Eds.), Achievement motivation in culture and context: Understanding children's learning experiences, new directions in child and adolescent development (pp. 45–63). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, J. (2003a). The core of Confucian learning. American Psychologist, 58, 146–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J. (2003b). U.S. and Chinese cultural beliefs about learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 258–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J. (2004a). “I learn and I grow big:” Chinese preschoolers' purposes for learning. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 116–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J. (2004b). Learning as a task and a virtue: U.S. and Chinese preschoolers explain learning. Developmental Psychology, 40, 595–605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J. (2006). Self in learning: Chinese adolescents' goals and sense of agency. Child Development, 77, 482–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., & Fischer, K. W. (2004). Thoughts and emotions in American and Chinese cultural beliefs about learning. In D. Y. Dai & R. Sternberg (Eds.), Motivation, emotion, and cognition: Integrative perspectives on intellectual functioning and development (pp.385–418). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., & Fischer, K. W. (2007). Respect as a positive self-conscious emotion in European Americans and Chinese. In J. L. Tracy, R. W. Robins & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 224–242). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Holloway, S. D., Bempechat, J., & Loh, E. (2008). Building and using a social network: Nurture for low-income Chinese American adolescents' learning. In R. W. Larson & L. A. Jensen (Series Eds.) and H. Yoshikawa & N. Way (Vol. Eds.), New directions for child and adolescent development: Vol. 2008. Beyond the family: Contexts of Immigrant Children's Development (pp. 9–25). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Wang, L. Q, & Fischer, K. W. (2004). The organization of Chinese shame concepts. Cognition and Emotion, 18, 767–797.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., & Wang, Q. (2004). Perceptions of achievement and achieving peers in U.S. and Chinese kindergartners. Social Development, 13, 413–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J, & Yue, X. D. (2004). Self in learning among Chinese adolescents. In M. F. Mascolo & J. Li. (Eds.), Culture and developing selves: Beyond dichotomization (New Directions in Child and Adolescent Development Series No. 104, pp. 27–43). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marton, F., Dall'Alba, G. A., & Beaty, E. (1993). Conceptions of learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 19, 277–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marton, F., Dall'Alba, G. A., & Tse, L. K. (1996). Memorizing and understanding: The keys to the paradox? In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese Learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 69–83). Hong Kong/Melbourne: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong/Australian Council for Educational Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mascolo, M. F., Fischer, K. W., & Li, J. (2003). The dynamic construction of emotions in development: A component systems approach. In N. Davidson, K. Scherer & H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective science (pp. 375–408). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matsushita, K. (1994). Acquiring mathematical knowledge through semantic and pragmatic problem solving. Human Development, 37, 220–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mencius. (1970). Mencius. (D. C. Lao, Trans.). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plato. (1981). Five dialogues. (G. M. A. Gruber, Trans.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, D. D., Kelly, M., & Wong, K. M. (1999). Chinese conceptions of “effective teaching” in Hong Kong: Towards culturally sensitive evaluation of teaching. International Journal of Lifelong Learning, 18, 241–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, N., & Holland, D. (1987). Introduction. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language and thought (pp. 3–40). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ran, A. (2001). Traveling on parallel tracks: Chinese parents and English teachers. Educational Research, 43, 311–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosch, E. (1975). Cognitive representations of semantic categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 192–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rousseau, J. J. (1979). Emil, or on education (A. Bloom, Trans.). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N., Eisenberg, R., & Higgins, E. T. (1994). Developmental changes in achievement evaluations: Motivational implications of self-other differences. Child Development, 65, 1095–1110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N., & Flett, G. L. (1988). Conflicting goals in self-evaluative goal seeking: Developmental and ability level analysis. Child Development, 59, 97–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salili, F., Chiu, C. Y., & Lai, S. (2001). The influence of culture and context on students' achievement orientations. In F. Salili, C. Y. Chiu, & Y. Y. Hong (Eds.), Student motivation: The culture and context of learning (pp. 221–247). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2003). Self-regulation and learning. In I. B. Weiner (Series Ed.) and W. M. Reynolds & G. E. Miller (Vol. Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Vol. 7. Educational psychology (pp. 59–78). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segall, M. H., Dasen, P. R., Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O'Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1061–1086.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shon, S. P., & Ja, D. Y. (1982). Asian families. In M. McGoldrick, J. K. Pearce, & J. Giordano (Eds.), Ethnicity and family therapy (pp. 134–163). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shweder, R. A. (1991). Thinking through cultures. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spiro, M. E. (1987). Collective representations and mental representations in religious symbol systems. In B. Kilborne & L. L. Langness (Eds.), Culture and human nature: Theoretical papers of Melford E. Spiro (pp. 161–184). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, R. J., & Williams, W. M. (2002). Educational psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, H. W., & Stigler, J. W. (1992). The learning gap. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stigler, J. W., & Hiebert J. (1999). The teaching gap: Best ideas from the world's teachers for improving education in the classroom. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stipek, D. J. (2002). Motivation to learn: Integrating theory and practice (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Baker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, C. (1992). Models of motives. In R. G. D'Andrade & C. Strauss (Eds.), Human motives and cultural models (pp. 1–20). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sue, S., & Okazaki, S. (1990). Asian-American educational achievements: A phenomenon in search of an explanation. American Psychologist, 45, 913–920.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tu, W. M. (1979). Humanity and self-cultivation: Essays in Confucian thought. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tweed, R. G., & Lehman, D. R. (2002). Learning considered within a cultural context: Confucian and Socratic approaches. American Psychologist, 57, 89–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.). (1996). The Chinese Learner: Cultural, psychological, and contextual influences. Hong Kong/Melbourne: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong/Australian Council for Educational Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.). (2001). Teaching the Chinese Learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives. Hong Kong/Melbourne: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong/Australian Council for Educational Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winner, E. (1989). How can Chinese children draw so well? Journal of Aesthetic Education, 23(1), 65–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, N. Y. (2004). The CHC learner's phenomenon: Its implications on mathematics education. In L. H. Fan, N. Y. Wong, J. F. Cai & S. Q. Li (Eds.), How Chinese learn mathematics: Perspectives from insiders (pp. 503–534). Singapore: World Scientific.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, S. P., & Lai, C. Y. (1992). Complete text of the four books and five classics in modern Chinese [in Chinese]. Beijing, China: International Culture Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, C. F. (2005). Research approaches to indigenous psychology. In K. S. Yang, K. K. Hwang & C. F. Yang (Eds.), Chinese indigenous psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 81–110). [in Chinese]. Taipei, Taiwan: Yuan Liu Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, K. S. (2005). Significance and development of indigenous psychology. In K. S. Yang, K. K. Hwang & C. F. Yang (Eds.), Chinese indigenous psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 3–56). [in Chinese]. Taipei, Taiwan: Yuan Liu Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yao, E. (1985). A comparison of family characteristics of Asian-American and Anglo-American high achievers. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 26, 198–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, A. B., & Yang K. S. (1994). The nature of achievement motivation in collectivist societies. In U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S.C., Choi & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 239–250). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jin Li .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Li, J. (2010). Learning to Self-Perfect: Chinese Beliefs about Learning. In: Chan, C., Rao, N. (eds) Revisiting The Chinese Learner. CERC Studies in Comparative Education, vol 25. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3840-1_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics