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Reforming European Data Protection Law pp 333–365Cite as

Do People Know About Privacy and Data Protection Strategies? Towards the “Online Privacy Literacy Scale” (OPLIS)

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Part of the book series: Law, Governance and Technology Series ((ISDP,volume 20))

Abstract

Empirical research has revealed disparities of internet users’ online privacy attitudes and online privacy behaviors. Although users express concerns about disclosing personal data in the internet, they share personal and sometimes intimate details of their and others lives in various online environments. This may possibly be explained by the knowledge gap hypothesis which states that people are concerned about their privacy and would like to behave accordingly, but that lacking privacy literacy prevents them from reacting the ways that they think would most adequately reflect their attitudes and needs. To implement privacy literacy in future research and policy making, a comprehensive scale to measure privacy literacy will be suggested. The online privacy literacy scale (OPLIS) was developed based on an exhaustive review of prior literature on privacy literacy and a profound content analysis of different sources capturing a variety of aspects relevant to online privacy. The scale encompasses five dimensions of online privacy literacy: (1) Knowledge about practices of organizations, institutions and online service providers; (2) Knowledge about technical aspects of online privacy and data protection; (3) Knowledge about laws and legal aspects of online data protection in Germany; (4) Knowledge about European directives on privacy and data protection; and (5) Knowledge about user strategies for individual privacy regulation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Alessandro Acquisti and Ralph Gross, “Awareness, Information Sharing, and Privacy on the Facebook” (Paper presented at the 6th Workshop on privacy enhancing technologies, June 28 – June 30 2006, Cambridge, June 2006).

  2. 2.

    Stefano Taddei and Bastianina Contena, “Privacy, Trust and Control: Which Relationships with Online Self-Disclosure?,” Computers in Human Behavior 29, no. 3 (2013).

  3. 3.

    Sabine Trepte and Leonard Reinecke, “The Social Web as Shelter for Privacy and Authentic Living,” in Privacy Online. Perspectives on Privacy and Self-Disclosure in the Social Web, ed. Sabine Trepte and Leonard Reinecke (Berlin: Springer, 2011).

  4. 4.

    Zeynep Tufekci, “Can You See Me Now? Audience and Disclosure Regulation in Online Social Network Sites,” Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society 28, no. 1 (2008).

  5. 5.

    Eurobarometer, “E-Communications Household Survey,” ed. Directorate General Communication (Brussels: European Commission, 2010).

  6. 6.

    European Commission, “Special Eurobarometer 359: Attitudes on Data Protection and Electronic Identity in the European Union,” ed. Survey coordinated by Directorate-General Communication (Brussels, Belgium: European Commission, 2011).

  7. 7.

    Sabine Trepte, Tobias Dienlin, and Leonard Reinecke, “Privacy, Self-Disclosure, Social Support, and Social Network Site Use. Research Report of a Three-Year Panel Study, http://opus.uni-hohenheim.de/volltexte/2013/889/pdf/Trepte_Dienlin_Reinecke_2013_Privacy_Self_Disclosure_Social_Support_and_SNS_Use.pdf” (Stuttgart: Universität Hohenheim, 2013).

  8. 8.

    Susan B. Barnes, “A Privacy Paradox: Social Networking in the Unites States,” First Monday 11, no. 9 (2006), http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/1394/1312.

  9. 9.

    Sabine Trepte, Tobias Dienlin, and Leonard Reinecke, “Risky Behaviors: How Online Experiences Influence Privacy Behaviors,” in Von Der Gutenberg-Galaxis Zur Google-Galaxis. From the Gutenberg Galaxy to the Google Galaxy. Surveying Old and New Frontiers after 50 Years of Dgpuk, ed. Birgit Stark, Oliver Quiring, and Nikolaus Jackob (Wiesbaden: UVK, in press), 217.

  10. 10.

    Yong J. Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online,” Communication Research 40, no. 2 (2013), 217.

  11. 11.

    Yong J. Park, Scott W. Campbell, and Nojin Kwak, “Affect, Cognition and Reward: Predictors of Privacy Protection Online,” Computers in Human Behavior 28, no. 3 (2012).

  12. 12.

    Irwin Altman, The Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, Personal Space, Territory, Crowding (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1975).

  13. 13.

    Alan F. Westin, Privacy and Freedom (New York, NY: Atheneum, 1967).

  14. 14.

    Alice E. Marwick and danah boyd, “I Tweet Honestly, I Tweet Passionately: Twitter Users, Context Collapse, and the Imagined Audience,” New Media & Society 13 (2011).

  15. 15.

    danah boyd, “Social Network Sites as Networked Publics: Affordances, Dynamics, and Implications,” in A Networked Self: Identity, Community, and Culture on Social Network Sites, ed. Zizi Papacharissi (New York: Routledge, 2011).

  16. 16.

    Sabine Trepte, “The Paradoxes of Online Privacy,” in Youth 2.0. Connecting, Sharing, and Empowering? Affordances, Uses and Risks of Social Media. edited by Michel Walrave, Koen Ponnet, Ellen Vanderhoven, Jacques Haers en Barbara Segaert.

  17. 17.

    Trepte, Dienlin, and Reinecke, “Risky Behaviors: How Online Experiences Influence Privacy Behaviors.”

  18. 18.

    Nicole B. Ellison and danah boyd, “Sociality through Social Network Sites,” in The Oxford Handbook of Internet Studies, ed. William H. Dutton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

  19. 19.

    Jan Schmidt, Das neue Netz. Merkmale, Praktiken und Folgen des Web 2.0 (Konstanz: UVK, 2009).

  20. 20.

    European Commission, “Special Eurobarometer 359: Attitudes on Data Protection and Electronic Identity in the European Union.”

  21. 21.

    Ibid.

  22. 22.

    Hichang Cho, Jae-Shin Lee, and Siyoung Chung, “Optimistic Bias About Online Privacy Risks: Testing the Moderating Effects of Perceived Controllability and Prior Experience,” Computers in Human Behavior 26 (2010).

  23. 23.

    European Commission, “Special Eurobarometer 359: Attitudes on Data Protection and Electronic Identity in the European Union.”

  24. 24.

    Sabine Trepte, Tobias Dienlin, and Leonard Reinecke, “Privacy, Self-Disclosure, Social Support, and Social Network Site Use. Research Report of a Three-Year Panel Study.”

  25. 25.

    Acquisti and Gross, “Awareness, Information Sharing, and Privacy on the Facebook”.

  26. 26.

    Michelle Madejski, Maritza Johnson, and Steven M. Bellovin, “A Study of Privacy Settings Errors in an Online Social Network” (paper presented at the Tenth Annual IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications, Lugano, Switzerland, 2012).

  27. 27.

    for an overview cf. Trepte, Dienlin, and Reinecke, “Risky Behaviors: How Online Experiences Influence Privacy Behaviors.”

  28. 28.

    Nicole B. Ellison et al., “Negotiating Privacy Concerns and Social Capital Needs in a Social Media Environment,” in Privacy Online. Perspectives on Privacy and Self-Disclosure in the Social Web, ed. Sabine Trepte and Leonard Reinecke (Berlin: Springer, 2011).

  29. 29.

    Jochen Peter and Patti M. Valkenburg, “Adolescents’ Online Privacy: Toward a Developmental Perspective,” Ibid.

  30. 30.

    Herbert A. Simon, “Bounded Rationality and Organizational Learning,” Organization Science 2, no. 1 (1991).

  31. 31.

    Trepte, Dienlin, and Reinecke, “Risky Behaviors: How Online Experiences Influence Privacy Behaviors.”

  32. 32.

    Ibid.

  33. 33.

    For a definition of declarative and procedural knowledge cf. Phillip L. Ackerman, “Knowledge and Cognitive Aging,” in The Handbook of Aging and Cognition, ed. Fergus I. M. Craik and Timothy A. Salthouse (New York: Psychology Press, 2008).

  34. 34.

    Glen J. Nowak and Joseph Phelps, “Direct Marketing and the Use of Individual-Level Consumer Information: Determining How and When Privacy Matters,” Journal of Interactive Marketing 11, no. 4 (1997).

  35. 35.

    Mary J. Culnan, “Consumer Awareness of Name Removal Procedures: Implications for Direct Marketing,” Journal of Direct Marketing 9, no. 2 (1995).

  36. 36.

    George R. Milne and Andrew J. Rohm, “Consumer Privacy and Name Removal across Direct Marketing Channels: Exploring Opt-in and Opt-out Alternatives,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 19, no. 2 (2000).

  37. 37.

    Culnan, “Consumer Awareness of Name Removal Procedures: Implications for Direct Marketing.”

  38. 38.

    Milne and Rohm, “Consumer Privacy and Name Removal across Direct Marketing Channels: Exploring Opt-in and Opt-out Alternatives.”

  39. 39.

    Joseph Turow, “Americans and Online Privacy. The System Is Broken. A Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania,” (Philadelphia 2003).

  40. 40.

    Joseph Turow, Lauren Feldman, and Kimberly Meltzer, “Open to Exploitation: America’s Shoppers Online and Offline. Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania,” in Annenberg School for Communication Departmental Papers (ASC) (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2005).

  41. 41.

    Turow, “Americans and Online Privacy. The System Is Broken. A Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.”

  42. 42.

    Turow, Feldman, and Meltzer, “Open to Exploitation: America’s Shoppers Online and Offline. Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.”

  43. 43.

    Turow, “Americans and Online Privacy. The System Is Broken. A Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.”

  44. 44.

    Turow, Feldman, and Meltzer, “Open to Exploitation: America’s Shoppers Online and Offline. Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.”

  45. 45.

    Carlos Jensen, Colin Potts, and Christian Jensen, “Privacy Practices of Internet Users: Self-Reports Versus Observed Behavior,” Human-Computer Studies 63 (2005).

  46. 46.

    Cookies are files on a computer that automatically save information for visited websites so that the websites recognize a user, or store other session or user-related information, when visiting the website repeatedly.

  47. 47.

    Web bugs – also known as tracking bugs – are tiny, invisible graphics implemented into websites used for statistic web analysis. They capture information about the users of a website like their IP address, visit time, and browser used, and forward this information to a server.

  48. 48.

    P3P is short for Platform for Privacy Preferences (P3P). It is a technical solution for websites to communicate their privacy policies automatically to users’ computers. When visiting a website, user software should be able to immediately evaluate if it meets users’ stated privacy preferences.

  49. 49.

    Acquisti and Gross, “Awareness, Information Sharing, and Privacy on the Facebook”.

  50. 50.

    Ibid.

  51. 51.

    Chris Hoofnagle et al., “How Different Are Young Adults from Older Adults When It Comes to Information Privacy Attitudes and Policy,” (2010).

  52. 52.

    Bobbi Morrison, “Do We Know What We Think We Know? An Exploration of Online Social Network Users’ Privacy Literacy,” Workplace Review, no. April 2013 (2013).

  53. 53.

    Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online”.

  54. 54.

    Ibid.

  55. 55.

    e.g. Hoofnagle et al., “How Different Are Young Adults from Older Adults When It Comes to Information Privacy Attitudes and Policy.”

  56. 56.

    Milne and Rohm, “Consumer Privacy and Name Removal across Direct Marketing Channels: Exploring Opt-in and Opt-out Alternatives.”

  57. 57.

    Acquisti and Gross, “Awareness, Information Sharing, and Privacy on the Facebook”.

  58. 58.

    Eszter Hargittai, “Survey Measures of Web-Oriented Digital Literacy,” Social Science Computer Review 23, no. 3 (2005).

  59. 59.

    Jensen, Potts, and Jensen, “Privacy Practices of Internet Users: Self-Reports Versus Observed Behavior.”

  60. 60.

    e.g. Ibid.

  61. 61.

    e.g. Morrison, “Do We Know What We Think We Know? An Exploration of Online Social Network Users’ Privacy Literacy.”

  62. 62.

    Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online.”, 217.

  63. 63.

    Milne and Rohm, “Consumer Privacy and Name Removal across Direct Marketing Channels: Exploring Opt-in and Opt-out Alternatives.”

  64. 64.

    cf. Turow, “Americans and Online Privacy. The System Is Broken. A Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.”

  65. 65.

    cf. Turow, Feldman, and Meltzer, “Open to Exploitation: America’s Shoppers Online and Offline. Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.”

  66. 66.

    cf. Hoofnagle et al., “How Different Are Young Adults from Older Adults When It Comes to Information Privacy Attitudes and Policy.”

  67. 67.

    cf. Morrison, “Do We Know What We Think We Know? An Exploration of Online Social Network Users’ Privacy Literacy.”

  68. 68.

    cf. Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online.” p. 2013.

  69. 69.

    cf. Jensen, Potts, and Jensen, “Privacy Practices of Internet Users: Self-Reports Versus Observed Behavior.”

  70. 70.

    cf. Amanda Lenhart and Mary Madden, “Teens, Privacy & Online Social Networks. How Teens Manage Their Online Identities and Personal Information in the Age of Myspace,” (Pew Research Center, 2007).

  71. 71.

    cf. Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online.”

  72. 72.

    Bernhard Debatin et al., “Facebook and Online Privacy: Attitudes, Behaviors, and Unintended Consequences,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 15 (2009).

  73. 73.

    Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online.”

  74. 74.

    Hoofnagle et al., “How Different Are Young Adults from Older Adults When It Comes to Information Privacy Attitudes and Policy.”

  75. 75.

    Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online.”

  76. 76.

    Joseph Turow, Michael Hennessey, and Amy Bleakley, “Consumers’ Understanding of Privacy Rules in the Marketplace,” Journal of consumer affairs 42, no. 3 (2008).

  77. 77.

    acatech, Internet Privacy. Optionas for Adequate Realisation (Acatech Study) (Heidelberg et al.: Springer Verlag 2013, 2013).

  78. 78.

    Turow, Hennessey, and Bleakley, “Consumers’ Understanding of Privacy Rules in the Marketplace.”

  79. 79.

    Hoofnagle et al., “How Different Are Young Adults from Older Adults When It Comes to Information Privacy Attitudes and Policy.”

  80. 80.

    Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online.”

  81. 81.

    Turow, Hennessey, and Bleakley, “Consumers’ Understanding of Privacy Rules in the Marketplace.”

  82. 82.

    Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online.”

  83. 83.

    Milne and Rohm, “Consumer Privacy and Name Removal across Direct Marketing Channels: Exploring Opt-in and Opt-out Alternatives.”, 239.

  84. 84.

    Culnan, “Consumer Awareness of Name Removal Procedures: Implications for Direct Marketing.”

  85. 85.

    Milne and Rohm, “Consumer Privacy and Name Removal across Direct Marketing Channels: Exploring Opt-in and Opt-out Alternatives.”

  86. 86.

    Morrison, “Do We Know What We Think We Know? An Exploration of Online Social Network Users’ Privacy Literacy.”

  87. 87.

    Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online.”

  88. 88.

    Lee A. Clark and David Watson, “Constructing Validity: Basic Issues in Objective Scale Development,” Psychological Assessment 7, no. 3 (1995).

  89. 89.

    Morrison, “Do We Know What We Think We Know? An Exploration of Online Social Network Users’ Privacy Literacy.”

  90. 90.

    Jochen Gläser and Grit Laudel, Experteninterviews und qualitative Inhaltsanalyse als Instrumente rekonstruierender Untersuchungen, 4th ed. (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag, 2010).

  91. 91.

    Clark and Watson, “Constructing Validity: Basic Issues in Objective Scale Development.”

  92. 92.

    Gläser and Laudel, Experteninterviews und qualitative Inhaltsanalyse als Instrumente rekonstruierender Untersuchungen.

  93. 93.

    SurPRISE, “Surveillance, Privacy and Security: A Large Scale Participatory Assessment of Criteria and Factors Determining Acceptability and Acceptance of Security Technologies in Europe - D 3.1 – Report on Surveillance Technology and Privacy Enhancing Design,” (2013).

  94. 94.

    Original extract (in German): “Wir erhalten Daten, wenn du eine Webseite mit einem sozialen Plug-In besuchst. Wir speichern diese Daten für einen Zeitraum von bis zu 90 Tagen. Danach entfernen wir deinen Namen sowie alle anderen personenbezogenen Informationen von den Daten oder kombinieren sie mit den Daten anderer Personen auf eine Weise, wodurch diese Daten nicht mehr mit dir verknüpft sind.” (Facebook, Privacy Policy; Retrieved on the 30th of October 2013)

  95. 95.

    Original extract (in German): “Google verarbeitet personenbezogene Daten auf unseren Servern, die sich in zahlreichen Ländern auf der ganzen Welt befinden. Daher verarbeiten wir Ihre personenbezogenen Daten gegebenenfalls auf einem Server, der sich außerhalb des Landes befindet, in dem Sie leben.” (Google, Privacy Policy; Retrieved on the 30th of October 2013)

  96. 96.

    Original extract (in German): “Letztlich entscheidet immer der Server, welches Verschlüsselungsverfahren zum Einsatz kommt. Der Browser kann zwar Präferenzen äußern, aber insbesondere größere Server ignorieren die in der Regel und nehmen stattdessen das aus der Liste des Browsers, was sie für angemessen halten” (c’t magazine, vol. 18, 2013, p. 16).

  97. 97.

    SurPRISE, “Surveillance, Privacy and Security: A Large Scale Participatory Assessment of Criteria and Factors Determining Acceptability and Acceptance of Security Technologies in Europe - D 3.1 – Report on Surveillance Technology and Privacy Enhancing Design.”

  98. 98.

    acatech, Internet Privacy. Options for Adequate Realisation (Acatech Study).

  99. 99.

    Original extract (in German): “Verbergen kann vollständig sein, zum Beispiel wenn anonym kommuniziert wird. Verbergen kann sich aber auch nur auf bestimmte Aspekte beziehen wie zum Beispiel Alter, Geschlecht oder Aufenthaltsort.” acatech, Privatheit Im Internet. Chancen Wahrnehmen, Risiken Einschätzen, Vertrauen Gestalten (Acatech Position) (Heidelberg u.a.: Springer Verlag 2013, 2013).

  100. 100.

    Original extract (in German): “Ein ausgeschaltetes WLAN kann niemand angreifen. Wenn Sie verreisen, drücken Sie den WLAN-Schalter, deaktivieren die Funktion im Menü oder ziehen den Stromstecker. Stellen Sie den Router unter System und Nachtschaltung so ein, dass er WLAN nachts generell abschaltet.” (ComputerBild, vol. 15, 2013, p. 68).

  101. 101.

    Hoofnagle et al., “How Different Are Young Adults from Older Adults When It Comes to Information Privacy Attitudes and Policy.”

  102. 102.

    Morrison, “Do We Know What We Think We Know? An Exploration of Online Social Network Users’ Privacy Literacy.”

  103. 103.

    Turow, “Americans and Online Privacy. The System Is Broken. A Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.”

  104. 104.

    Turow, Feldman, and Meltzer, “Open to Exploitation: America’s Shoppers Online and Offline. Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.”

  105. 105.

    Culnan, “Consumer Awareness of Name Removal Procedures: Implications for Direct Marketing.”

  106. 106.

    Milne and Rohm, “Consumer Privacy and Name Removal across Direct Marketing Channels: Exploring Opt-in and Opt-out Alternatives.”

  107. 107.

    Park, “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online.”

  108. 108.

    Morrison, “Do We Know What We Think We Know? An Exploration of Online Social Network Users’ Privacy Literacy.”

  109. 109.

    Hoofnagle et al., “How Different Are Young Adults from Older Adults When It Comes to Information Privacy Attitudes and Policy.”

  110. 110.

    Turow, Feldman, and Meltzer, “Open to Exploitation: America’s Shoppers Online and Offline. Report from the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania.”

  111. 111.

    Sabine Trepte, Philipp K. Masur, and Doris Teutsch “Measuring Internet Users’ Online Privacy Literacy. Development and Validation of the Online Privacy Literacy Scale (OPLIS),” (in prep).

  112. 112.

    Ibid.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Media Psychology, Institute of Communication Science, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany

    Sabine Trepte, Doris Teutsch, Philipp K. Masur, Carolin Eicher, Mona Fischer, Alisa Hennhöfer & Fabienne Lind

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  1. Sabine Trepte
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  2. Doris Teutsch
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  3. Philipp K. Masur
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  4. Carolin Eicher
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  5. Mona Fischer
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  6. Alisa Hennhöfer
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  7. Fabienne Lind
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Correspondence to Sabine Trepte .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Law, Science, Technology & Society (LSTS), Faculty of Law and Criminology at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

    Serge Gutwirth

  2. Tilburg Institute for Law, Technology, and Society (TILT), Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Ronald Leenes

  3. Law, Science, Technology & Society (LSTS), Faculty of Law and Criminology at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

    Paul de Hert

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Trepte, S. et al. (2015). Do People Know About Privacy and Data Protection Strategies? Towards the “Online Privacy Literacy Scale” (OPLIS). In: Gutwirth, S., Leenes, R., de Hert, P. (eds) Reforming European Data Protection Law. Law, Governance and Technology Series(), vol 20. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9385-8_14

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