Abstract
Many important processes in science involve the escape of a particle over a barrier. In this review, we report, extend, and interpret various theories of noise-activated escape. We discuss the connection between many-body transition state theory and Kramers' original diffusive Brownian motion approach (both in one-and multidimensional potential fields) and emphasize the physical situation inherent in Kramers' rate for weak friction. A rate theory accounting for memory friction is presented together with a set of criteria which test its validity. The complications and peculiarities of noise-activated escape in driven systems exhibiting multiple, locally stable stationary nonequilibrium states are identified and illustrated. At lower temperatures, quantum tunneling effects begin to play an increasingly important role. Early approaches and more recent developments of the quantum version of Kramers approach are discussed, thereby providing a description for dissipative escape at all temperatures.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
H. A. Kramers,Physica (Utrecht) 7:284 (1940).
S. Chandrasekhar,Rev. Mod. Phys. 15:1, 63–68 (1943).
H. C. Brinkman,Physica (Utrecht) 22:149 (1956).
R. Landauer and J. A. Swanson,Phys. Rev. 121:1668 (1961).
J. S. Langer,Phys. Rev. Lett. 21:973 (1968);Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 54:258 (1969).
B. Widom,J. Chem. Phys. 55:44 (1971)
H. Tomita, A. Ito, and H. Kidachi,Progr. Theor. Phys. 56:786 (1976)
P. B. Visscher,Phys. Rev. B 13:3272 (1976);14:347 (1976)
C. Blomberg,Physica (Utrecht) 86A:49 (1977)
N. G. Van Kampen,Suppl. Progr. Theor. Phys. 64:389 (1978)
R. S. Larson and M. D. Kostin,J. Chem. Phys. 72:1392 (1980)
J. L. Skinner and P. G. Wolynes,J. Chem. Phys. 69:2143 (1978);72:4913 (1980)
J. R. Montgomery, D. Chandler, and B. J. Berne,J. Chem. Phys. 70:4065 (1979); B. J. Berne, J. L. Skinner, and P. G. Wolynes,J. Chem. Phys. 73:4314 (1980)
R. F. Grote and J. T. Hynes,J. Chem. Phys. 74:4465 (1981)
M. Buttiker, E. P. Harris, and R. Landauer,Phys. Rev. B 28:1268 (1983)
M. Buttiker and R. Landauer,Phys. Rev. Lett. 52:1250 (1984).
H. Frauenfelder and P. G. Wolynes,Science 229:337 (1985).
J. Kurkijarvi,Phys. Rev. B 6, 832 (1972); L. D. Jackel, W. W. Webb, J. E. Lukens, and S. S. Pei,Phys. Rev. B 9:115(1974).
T. A. Fulton and L. N. Dunkleberger,Phys. Rev. B 9:4760 (1974).
W. de Boer and R. de Bryn Ouboter,Physica (Utrecht) 98B:185 (1980);Physica (Utrecht) 122B:1 (1983).
E. G. D. D'Agliano, P. Kumar, W. Schaich, and H. Suhl,Phys. Rev. B 11:2122 (1975);Proc. 24th Nobel Symposium on Collective Properties of Physical Systems (Academic Press, New York, 1973).
G. Iche and Ph. NozièresJ. Phys. (Paris) 37:1313 (1976); B. A. Huberman and J. B. Boyce,Solid State Commun. 25:843 (1978).
R. D. Young,J. Chem. Phys. 80:554 (1984).
D. Beece, L. Eisenstein, H. Frauenfelder, D. Good, M. C. Marden, L. Reinisch, A. H. Reynolds, L. B. Sorensen and K. T. Yue,Biochemistry 19:5147 (1980).
W. Doster,Biophysical Chemistry 17:97 (1983).
S. Mashimo,Macromolecules 9:91 (1976).
D. L. Hasha, T. Eguchi, and J. Jonas,J. Chem. Phys. 75:1570 (1981);J. Am. Chem. Soc. 104:2290 (1982).
G. Rothenberger, D. K. Negus, and R. M. Hochstrasser,J. Chem. Phys. 79:5360 (1983).
S. P. Velsko, D. H. Waldeck, and G. R. Fleming,J. Chem. Phys. 78:249 (1983);J. Chem. Phys. 65:59 (1982); S. H. Courtney and G. R. Fleming,Chem. Phys. Lett. 103:443 (1984); B. Bagchi and D. Oxtoby,J. Chem. Phys. 78:2735 (1983).
B. Otto, J. Schroeder, and J. Troe,J. Chem. Phys. 81:202 (1984); H. Hippler, V. Schubert, and J. Troe,J. Chem. Phys. 81:3931 (1984); H. Hippler and J. Troe,Int. J. Chem. Kin. 8:501 (1976).
J. C. Tully,Surf. Sci. 111:461 (1981); C. Caroli, B. Roulet and D. Saint-James,Phys. Rev. B 18:545 (1978).
S. Glasstone, K. J. Laidler, and H. Eyring,The Theory of Rate Processes (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941); H. Eyring,J. Chem. Phys. 3:107, 492 (1935).
C. A. Wert and C. Zener,Phys. Rev. 76:1169 (1949); H. Fröhlich,The Theory of Dielectric (Calendron Press, Oxford, 1950).
A. Seeger,Encyclopedia of Physics, Vol. VII, part 1 (Springer, Berlin, 1955).
G. H. Vineyard,J. Phys. Chem. Solids 3:121 (1957).
S. A. Rice,Phys. Rev. 112:804 (1958); S. A. Rice and H. L. Frisch,J. Chem. Phys. 32:1046 (1960).
N. B. Slater,Theory of Unimolecular Reactions (Methuen, London, 1959);J. Chem. Phys. 24:1256 (1956).
H. R. Glyde,Rev. Mod. Phys. 39:373 (1967); K. J. Laidler and A. Tweedale,Adv. Chem. Phys,21:113 (1971), in particular see p. 117.
P. Pechukas,Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem. 29:59 (1978);Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chem. 86:372 (1982).
C. W. Gardiner,J. Stat. Phys. 30:157 (1983).
G. H. Vineyard and J. Krumhansl,Phys. Rev. B 31:4929 (1985).
H. Grabert, P. Hanggi, and P. Talkner,J. Stat. Phys. 22:537 (1980).
K. Kawasaki,J. Phys. A6:1289 (1973).
O. Klein,Ark. Mat. Astr. Fys. 16, No 5 (1922).
H. D. Vollmer and H. Risken,Physica (Utrecht) 110A:106 (1982); K. Voigtlaender and H. Risken,Chem. Phys. Lett. 105:506 (1984);J. Stat. Phys. 40:397 (1985).
H. Risken and K. Voigtlaender,J. Stat. Phys. 41:825 (1985).
G. Wilemski,J. Stat. Phys. 14:153 (1976); U. M. Titulaer,Physica (Utrecht) 91A:321 (1978);100A:251 (1980); H. Risken, H. D. Vollmer, and M. Morsch,Z. Phys. B40:343 (1980); P. Grigolini and F. Marchesoni, in Memory function approaches to stochastic problems in condensed matter,Adv. Chem. Phys. 62, 1, 29 (1985);Physica (Utrecht) 121A:269 (1983); M. San Miguel and J. M. Sancho,J. Stat. Phys. 22:605 (1980); F. Haake,Z. Phys. B48:31 (1982).
M. V. Smoluchowski,Ann. Phys. (Leipzig) 21:756 (1906);48:1103 (1915);Phys. Z. 17:557, 585 (1917).
P. Hanggi and H. Thomas,Phys. Rep. 88C:207–319 (1982), Section 3.2.
P. Hanggi,Helv. Phys. Acta 51:202 (1978);Z. Naturforsch. 33A:1380 (1978); P. Hanggi, F. Rosel, and D. Trautmann,Z. Naturforch. 33A:402 (1978); G. Grosso and G. Pastori Parravicini,Adv. Chem. Phys. 62:81 (1985).
H. Risken,The Fokker-Planck Equation (Springer Series in Synergetics, No. 18, Springer, New York, 1984).
U. Weiss,Phys. Rev. A 25:2444 (1982) (Rapid Commun.); U. Weiss and W. Haffner, inFunctional Integration, J. P. Antoine and E. Tirapegui, eds. (Plenum, New York, 1980).
G. H. Weiss,Adv. Chem. Phys. 13:1 (1969).
B. J. Matkowsky and Z. Schuss,SIAM J. Appl. Math. 33:365 (1977);Z. Schuss, SIAM Rev. 22:119 (1980); see also D. Ludwig,SIAM Rev. 17:605 (1975).
P. Hanggi and P. Talkner,Phys. Rev. Lett. 51:2242 (1983);Z. Phys. B45:79 (1981);Phys. Rev. A 32:1934 (1985); P. Talkner and P. Hanggi,Phys. Rev. A 29:768 (1984); P. Talkner and D. Ryter, inNoise in Physical Systems and I/f Noise, M. Savelli, G. Lecay, and J. P. Nougier, eds. (Elsevier Science Publ., New York, 1983).
S. R. Shenoy and G. S. Agarwal,Phys. Rev. A 29:1315 (1984); S. R. Shenoy,Phys. Rev. A 30:2849 (1984) (Rapid Commun.)
K. Schulten, Z. Schulten, and A. Szabo,J. Chem. Phys. 74:4426 (1981); see also A. Szabo, K. Schulten, and Z. Schulten,J. Chem. Phys. 72:4350 (1980).
G. H. Weiss and A. Szabo,Physica (Utrecht) 119A:569 (1983).
M. V. Smoluchowski,Z. Phys. Chem. 92:129 (1917).
P. Debye,Trans. Electro-Chem. Soc. 82:265 (1942).
F. C. Collins and G. E. Kimball,J. Colloid Sci. 4:425 (1949).
G. Wilemski and M. Fixman,J. Chem. Phys. 58:4009 (1972).
D. Shoup and A. Szabo,Biophys. J. 40:33 (1982).
F. A. Lindemann,Trans. Faraday Soc. 17:589 (1922); E. W. Montroll and K. E. Shuler,Adv. Chem. Phys. 1:361 (1958); J. Troe,Ann. Rev. Chem. Phys. 29:223 (1978);J. Chem. Phys. 66:4745 (1977); T. A. Bak and J. L. Lebowitz,Phys. Rev. 131:1138 (1963); S. E. Nielsen and T. A. Bak,J. Chem. Phys. 41:665 (1964).
M. Buttiker and R. Landauer,Phys. Rev. B 30:1551 (1984).
P. Hanggi and U. Weiss,Phys. Rev. A 29:2265 (1984).
M. Buttiker, in17th Int. Conf. Low Temp. Physics, Karlruhe 1984, U. Eckern et al., eds. (Elsevier Science Publ., Amsterdam, 1984), EP 18, p. 1155.
S. H. Northrup and J. A. McCammon,J. Chem. Phys. 72:4569 (1980); G. Van der Zwan and J. T. Hynes,J. Chem. Phys. 77:1295 (1982); S. H. Northrup and J. A. McCammon,J. Chem. Phys. 78:987 (1983).
M. Borkovec and B. J. Berne,J. Chem. Phys. 82:794 (1985).
B. J. Matkowsky, Z. Schuss, and E. Ben-Jacob,SIAM J. Appl. Phys. 42:835 (1982).
P. Hanggi and F. Mojtabai,Phys. Rev. A 26:1168 (1982) (Rapid Commun.); P. Hanggi,Springer Proc. Phys. 1:95 (1984).
S. A. Adelman,J. Chem. Phys. 64:124 (1976).
R. F. Fox,Phys. Rep. 48C:179 (1978).
P. Hanggi and H. Thomas,Z. Phys. B26:85 (1977); H. Grabert, P. Hanggi, and P. Talkner,Z. Phys. B26:389 (1977); P. Hanggi, H. Thomas, H. Grabert, and P. Talkner,J. Stat. Phys. 18:155 (1978).
R. F. Grote and J. T. Hynes,J. Chem. Phys. 73:2715 (1980); J. T. Hynes, inThe Theory of Chemical Reaction Rates, M. Baer, ed. (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, in press).
P. Hanggi,J. Stat. Phys. 30:401 (1983).
B. Carmeli and A. Nitzan,Phys. Rev. A 29:1481 (1984).
M. M. Dygas, B. J. Matkowsky, and Z. Schuss,SIAM Appl. Math. (in press).
P. Hanggi, H. Grabert, G. Ingold, and U. Weiss, Quantum theory of activated events in presence of long time memory,Phys. Rev. Lett. 55:761 (1985).
J. E. Straub, M. Borkovec, and B. J. Berne,J. Chem. Phys. 83:3172 (1985);J. Chem. Phys. (in press).
R. W. Zwanzig,Phys. Fluids 2:12 (1959).
B. Carmeli and A. Nitzan,Phys. Rev. Lett. 49:423 (1982); R. F. Grote and J. T. Hynes,J. Chem. Phys. 77:3736 (1982); A. Nitzan,J. Chem. Phys. 82:1614 (1985); A. G. Zawadzki and J. T. Hynes,Chem. Phys. Lett. 113:476 (1985).
B. J. Matkowsky, Z. Schuss, and C. Tier,J. Stat. Phys. 35:443 (1984).
G. Nicolis,Rep. Progr. Phys. 42:225 (1979).
N. G. Van Kampen,Stochastic Processes in Physics and Chemistry (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1981).
W. Horsthemke and R. Lefever,Noise Induced Transitions, Theory and Applications in Physics, Chemistry and Biology (Series in Synergetics, Vol. 15, Springer, New York, 1984);Fluctuations and Sensitivity in Nonequilibrium Systems (Springer Proc. Phys. Vol. I, eds. W. Horsthemke and D. K. Kondepudi, Springer, New York, 1984).
R. L. Stratonovich,Topics in the Theory of Random Noise, Vols. I and II (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1963/1966).
R. Landauer,J. Appl. Phys. 33:2209 (1962);Phys. Today 31:23 (1978).
V. De Giorgio and M. O. Scully,Phys. Rev. A 2:1170 (1970); R. Graham and H. Haken,Z. Phys. 237:31 (1970); R. Graham,Springer Tracts in Modern Physics 66:1 (1973); H. Haken,Rev. Mod. Phys. 47:67 (1975); J. F. Scott, M. Sargent III, and C. Cantrell,Opt. Commun. 15:13 (1975).
E. Abraham and S. D. Smith,Rep. Progr. Phys. 45:815 (1982); L. A. Lugiato,Progr. Optics 21:69 (1984); R. Bonifacia, M. Gronchi, and L. A. Lugiato,Phys. Rev. A18:2266 (1978); P. Hanggi, A. R. Bulsara, and R. Janda,Phys. Rev. A 22:671 (1980).
P. Hanggi,Phys. Lett. 78A:304 (1978); S. Faetti, P. Grigolini, and F. Marchesoni,Z. Phys. B47:353 (1982).
M. H. Devoret, J. M. Martinis, D. Esteve, and J. Clarke,Phys. Rev. Lett. 53:1260 (1984); T. Fonesca and P. Grigolini,Phys. Rev. A (in press).
P. Hanggi and P. Riseborough,Am. J. Phys. 51:347 (1983).
L. N. Epele, H. Fanchiatti, M. Spina, and H. Vucetich,Phys. Rev. A 31:2631 (1985).
M. Buttiker and R. Landauer, inNonlinear Phenomena at Phase Transitions and Instabilities, T. Riste, ed. (Plenum, New York, 1982), pp. 111–143.
V. Ambegaokar and B. J. Halperin,Phys. Rev. Lett. 22:1364 (1969); Yu. M. Ivanchenko and L. A. Zilberman,Sov. Phys. JETP 28:1272 (1969).
E. Ben-Jacob, D. J. Bergman, B. J. Matkowsky, and Z. Schuss,Phys. Rev. A 26:2805 (1982); E. Ben-Jacob, D. J. Bergman, Y. Imry, B. J. Matkowsky, and Z. Schuss,J. Appl. Phys. 54:6533 (1983); H. D. Vollmer and H. Risken,Z. Phys. 52B:259 (1983); P. Jung and H. Risken,Z. Phys. B54:357 (1984).
P. Fulde, L. Pietronero, W. R. Schneider, and S. Strassler,Phys. Rev. Lett. 35:1776 (1975); T. Geisel,Physics in Superionic Conductors, M. B. Salamon, ed. (Springer, New York 1979), p. 201; G. Gruner, A. Zawadovski, and P. M. Chaikin,Phys. Rev. Lett. 46:511 (1981).
P. Hanggi and H. Thomas,Phys. Rep. 88C:207 (1982), Section 4.3.
R. Graham and T. Tél,J. Stat. Phys. 35:729 (1984);37:709 (1984) (Addendum);Phys. Rev. A 31:1109 (1985);31:3364 (1985).
P. Hanggi, F. Marchesoni, and P. Grigolini,Z. Phys. B56:333 (1984); P. Hanggi, T. J. Mroczkowski, F. Moss, and P.V.E. McClintock,Phys. Rev. A 32: 695 (1985) (Rapid Commun.).
P. Hanggi and P. Riseborough,Phys. Rev. A 27:3379 (1983) (Rapid Commun.); C. Van den Broeck and P. Hanggi,Phys. Rev. A 30:2730 (1984).
P. Hanggi, H. Grabert, P. Talkner, and H. Thomas,Phys. Rev. A 29:371 (1984).
B. J. Matkowsky, Z. Schuss, C. Knessl, C. Tier, and M. Mangel,Phys. Rev. A 29:3359 (1984).
E. Wigner,Z. Phys. Chem. B19:203 (1932);Trans. Faraday Soc. 24:29 (1938).
R. P. Bell,Proc. R. Soc. (London) 13:204 (1933); Trans.Faraday Soc. 55:1 (1959); R. P. Bell,The Tunnel Effect in Chemistry (Chapman and Hall, London, 1980).
G. Alefeld,Phys. Rev. Lett. 12:372 (1964); C. P. Flynn,Phys. Rev. 171:682 (1982).
I. Affleck,Phys. Rev. Lett. 46:388 (1981); see also U. Weiss and W. Haeffner,Phys. Rev. D 27:2916 (1983).
R. Pirc and P. Gosar,Phys. Kond. Mater. 9:377 (1969).
L. M. Sander and H. B. Shore,Phys. Rev. B 3:1472 (1969);B12:1546 (1975).
J. A. Sussmann,Ann. Phys. (Paris) 6:135 (1971).
T. Holstein,Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 8:325 (1959);8:343 (1959); D. Emin and T. Holstein,Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 53:439 (1969).
C. P. Flynn and A. M. Stoneham,Phys. Rev. 1B:3966 (1970).
J. J. Hopfield,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 71:3640 (1974); inTunneling in Biological SSystems, B. Chanceet al., eds. (Academic Press, New York, 1979).
W. A. Phillips,Philos. Mag. 34:983 (1976).
P. Riseborough,Phys. Stat. Solidi 117B:381 (1983);Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 153:1 (1984).
J. P. Sethna,Phys. Rev. B24:698 (1981); B25:5050 (1982); doctoral thesis, Princeton University, 1981.
A. J. Leggett,J. Phys. (Paris) C6:1264 (1978);Progr. Theor. Phys. Suppl. 69:80 (1980);80:10 (1984).
A. O. Caldeira and A. J. Leggett,Phys. Rev. Lett. 46:211 (1981);Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 149:374 (1983);153:445 (1984) (Erratum).
R. P. Feynman and A. R. Hibbs,Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965); R. P. Feynman,Statistical Mechanics (Benjamin, New York, 1972), Chap. 3.
H. Grabert, U. Weiss and P. Hanggi,Phys. Rev. Lett. 52:2193 (1984); see also Refs. 69, 115, 116 and H. Grabert, in SQUID85, H. D. Hahlbohm and H. Lubbig (eds.), (deGruyter, Berlin 1985).
R. P. Feynman,Phys. Rev. 97:660 (1955); R. P. Feynman and F. L. Vernon,Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 24, 118 (1963); A. O. Caldeira and A. J. Leggett,Physica (Utrecht) 121A:587 (1983); A. Schmid,J. Low Temp. Phys. 49:609 (1982).
J. S. Langer,Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 41:108 (1967).
S. Coleman,Phys. Rev. D 15:2929 (1977); C. G. Callan and S. Coleman,Phys. Rev. D 16:1762 (1977); S. Coleman, inThe Whys of Subnuclear Physics, A. Zichichi, ed. (Plenum, New York, 1979).
P. Riseborough, P. Hanggi, and E. Freidkin,Phys. Rev. A 32:489 (1985).
H. Grabert and U. Weiss,Phys. Rev. Lett. 53:1787 (1984).
A. I. Larkin and Yu. N. Ovchinnikov,Sov. Phys. JETP 59:420 (1984).
A. Schmid, Quasiclassical wave function in multidimensional quantum decay problems, preprint, 1985.
T. Banks, C. M. Bender, and T. T. Wu,Phys. Rev. D 8:3346 (1973);8:3366 (1973); H. J. de Vega, J. L. Gervais, and B. Sakita,Phys. Rev. D 19:604 (1979).
U. Weiss, P. Riseborough, P. Hanggi, and H. Grabert,Phys. Lett. 104A:10 (1984);104A:492 (1984) (Erratum).
S. Chakravarty and A. J. Leggett,Phys. Rev. Lett. 52:5 (1984); S. Chakravarty,Phys. Rev. Lett. 49:681 (1982); A. J. Bray and M. A. Moore,Phys. Rev. Lett. 49:1546 (1982); B. Carmeli and D. Chandler,J. Chem. Phys. 82:3400 (1985).
S. Chakravarty and S. Kivelson,Phys. Rev. Lett. 50:1811 (1983);51:1109 (1983) (Erratum);Phys. Rev. B 32:76 (1985); H. Grabert and U. Weiss,Phys. Rev. Lett. 54:1605 (1985); M. P. A. Fisher and A. Dorsey,Phys. Rev. Lett. 54:1609 (1985).
P. Hanggi and P. Riseborough, unpublished; approximate weak friction quantum results, valid forT>ħω b/2πk, can be found in V. I. Melnikov,Sov. Phys. JETP 60:380 (1984).
V. I. Goldanskii,Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR 124:1261 (1959);127:1037 (1959).
P. Ullersma,Physica (Utrecht) 32:27, 56, 74, 90 (1966).
R. J. Rubin,Phys. Rev. 131:964 (1963).
H. Grabert, U. Weiss, and P. Talkner,Z. Phys. B55:87 (1984); P. Riseborough, P. Hanggi, and U. Weiss,Phys. Rev. A 31:471 (1985); F. Haake and R. Reibold,Acta Physica Austriaca 56:37 (1985);Phys. Rev. A 32: 2462 (1985).
H. Frauenfelder, in Tunneling in Biological Systems, B. Chanceet al. eds. p. 627 ff, (Academic Press, New York, 1979); p. 627 ff N. Alberding, R. H. Austin, K. W. Beeson, S. S. Chan, L. Eisenstein, H. Frauenfelder, and T. M. Nordlund,Science 192:1002 (1976).
R. Di Foggio and R. Gomer,Phys. Rev. 525:3490 (1982); W. Rieheman and E. Nem-bach,J. Appl. Phys. 55:1081 (1984).
P. G. Wolynes,Phys. Rev. Lett. 47:968 (1981).
V. I. Melnikov and S. V. Meshkov,JETP Lett. 38:130 (1983).
S. Washburn, R. A. Webb, R. F. Voss, and S. M. Paris,Phys. Rev. Lett. 54:2712 (1985); R. F. Voss and R. A. Webb,Phys. Rev. Lett. 47:265 (1981); L. D. Jackelet al. Phys. Rev. Lett. 47:697 (1981); R. J. Pranceet al., Nature 289:543 (1981).
D. B. Schwartz, B. Sen, C. N. Archie, A. K. Jain, and J. E. Lukens,Phys. Rev. Lett. 55:1547 (1985).
L. D. Chang and S. Chakravarty,Phys. Rev. B 29:130 (1984); 30:1566 (1984) (Erratum).
H. Grabert, P. Olschowski, and U. Weiss,Phys. Rev. B 32:3348 (1985) (Rapid Commun.);Phys. Rev. Lett. (Comment) (in press).
P. Riseborough,J. Stat. Phys. (in press).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hanggi, P. Escape from a metastable state. J Stat Phys 42, 105–148 (1986). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01010843
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01010843