Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Geochemistry of Rewalsar Lake sediment, Lesser Himalaya, India: implications for source-area weathering, provenance and tectonic setting

  • Published:
Geosciences Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Major, trace and rare earth element (REE) chemistry of fresh-water lake sediments, stituated in the middle Siwalik Formation (Pliocene), have been investigated. The log (Fe2O3/K2O) vs log (SiO2/Al2O3) plot of sediments discriminate the rock types of the catchment which are remarkably similar to those observed in thinsections. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) between 75.2 to 78.1 and Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) between 79.5 to 89.8 are higher than Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS), indicating moderate to high weathering at source area. The PAAS normalized REE patterns are similar and differentiate the major rock types on the basis of abundance of REEs in accordance to clay minerals, grain size, with the highest concentration in the finest grain sediments. It also indicates poor mixing of sediments. The consistency of REEs in sediments with those of rock types illustrate almost unaltered, unmodified transport of these from the provenance to the detritus deposited in the basin and also shows that the REEs are enriched in phyllosilicates. The major elements, Fe2O3, TiO2, MgO, K2O show strong positive correlation with Al2O3 and follow the trend of the latter, and REEs also indicate same characteristics, hence phyllosilicates are likely to be the promising host for REEs. The negative correlation of La, Yb and Y with Zr and positive correlation with REEs and Al2O3 do not indicate Zr control on REE distribution in the present case. The petrographic character of minerals in thinsection of rocks as well as of lake sediments and low Na2O/K2O ratio in the latter show short distance transport, textural immaturity and sorting of grains. The higher Zr/Th and Zr/Yb ratios in coarser sediments than in fine grain detritus are supporting evidence of sedimentary sorting. Chondrite normalized REE patterns and negative Eu anomaly of the lake sediments are similar to that of PAAS indicating that they may have been originally derived from differentiated silicic (felsic) and/or recycled sedimentary source and deposited in foreland basin. However, petrographic character, REEs and high field strength elements estimated on sediments, tends to support metamorphic source area for middle Siwalik detritus and is consistent to the observations made on rocks exposed in the catchment area, attesting to the rise of Himalaya in phases, exposing fresh rocks for erosion/weathering, lying northward in Lesser Himalayan domain. Plot of sediment chemistry of lakes on tectonic delineation diagrams show that Rewalsar detritus derived from middle Siwalik rocks are from passive margin setting. The discriminant function plots of sediment samples also indicate that they are derived from craton interior or a quartzose sedimentary orogenic terrain and deposited in a passive margin setting. The chemistry of Rewalsar sediments is thus a proxy for the middle Siwalik rocks deposited in the foreland basin and throw light on provenance, source area weathering, and tectonic setting of the source rock.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bauluz, B., Mayayo, M.J., Fernandez-Nieto, C. and Lopez, J.M.G., 2000, Geochemistry of Precambrian and Paleozoic siliciclastic rocks from the Iberian Range (NE Spain): implications for source-area weathering, sorting, provenance, and tectonic setting. Chemical Geology, 168, 135–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bea, F., 1996, Residence of REE, Y and Th in granites and crustal protoliths, implications for the chemistry of crustal melting, Journal of Petrology, 37, 521–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatia, M.R., 1983, Plate tectonics and geochemical composition of sandstones. Journal Geology, 91, 611–627.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhatia, M.R., 1985a. Rare-Earth Elements Geochemistry of Australian Paleozoic Graywackes and Mud Rocks: Provenance and tectonic control. Sedimentary Geology, 45, 97–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatia, M.R., 1985b, Composition and classification of Paleozoic flysch mudrocks of eastern Australia: Implications in provenance and tectonic setting interpretation. Sedimentary Geology, 41, 249–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatia, M.R., and Crook, K.A.W., 1986, Trace element characteristics of graywacks and Tectonic setting discrimination of sedimentary basins. Contribution of Mineralogy and Petrology, 92, 181–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatia, M.R. and Taylor, S.R., 1981, Trace-element geochemistry and sedimentary provinces: a study from the Tasman Geosyncline, Australia. Chemical Geology, 33, 115–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharya, N., 1970, Clay mineralogy and trace element geochemistry of Subathu, Dharmsala and Siwalik sediments in Himalayan foothills of northwest India. Journal Geological Society of India, 11, 4, 309-332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Condie, K.C., 1991, Another look at rare earth elements in shales. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 55, 2527–2531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Condie, K.C., 1993, Chemical composition and evolution of the upper continental crust: Contrasting results from surface samples and shales. Chemical Geology, 104, 1–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Covey, M., 1986, The evolution of foreland basins to steady state: evidence from the western Taiwan foreland basin. In: Allen, P.A. and Homewood, P. (eds.), Foreland Basin. Special Publication of International Association of Sedimentology, 8, 77–90.

  • Crook, K.A.W., 1974, Lithogenesis and geotectonics, the significance of compositional variations in flysch arenites (graywackes). In: Dott, R.H., Shaver, R.H. (eds.), Modern and Ancient Geosynclinal Sedimentation. Society of Economic and Paleontological Mineralogy, Special Publication, 19, 304–310.

  • Cullers, R.L., and Graf, J., 1983, Rare earth elements in igneous rocks of the continental crust: intermediate and silicic rocks, ore petrogenesis. In: Henderson, P. (ed.), Rare-Earth geochemistry, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 275–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullers, R.L., Chaudhuri, C., Kilbane, N. and Koch, R., 1979, REE in size fractions and sedimentary rocks of Pennsylvanian-Permian age from the mid-continent of the U.S.A. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 43, 1285–1301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullers, R.L., Barrett, T., Carlson, R. and Robinson, B., 1987, REE mineralogic changes in Hologene soil and stream sediment. Chemical geology, 63, 275–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullers, R.L., Basu, A. and Suttner, L.J., 1988, Geochemical signature of provenance in sand-material in soils and stream sediments near the Tobacco Root Batholith, Montana, U.S.A. Chemical Geology, 70, 335–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullers, R.L. and Stone, J., 1991, Chemical and mineralogical composition of the Pennsylvanian Mountain, Colorado, U.S.A. (an uplifted continental block) to sedimentary rocks from other tectonics environments. Lithos, 27, 115–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullers, R.L., Chaudhuri, S., Arnold, B., Lee, M. and Wolf, W., 1975, REE distributions in clay minerals and in the clay-sized fraction of the lower Permian Havensville and Eskridge shales of Kansas and Oklahoma. Geochimca et Cosmochimca Acta, 39, 1691–1703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Das, B.K., 2003, Geochemistry of surface and sub-surface waters of Rewalsar Lake, Mandi District, Himachal Pradesh, India: constraints on weathering and erosion, Journal of Hydrology (in press).

  • Dickinson, W.R. and Suczek, C.A., 1979, Plate tectonics and sandstone compositions. American Association of Petrolium Geology Bulletin, 63, 2164–2182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleet, A.J., 1984, Aqueous and sedimentary geochemistry of the rare-earth elements. In: Henderson, P. (ed.), Rare-Earth Element Geochemistry. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 343–373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Floyd, P.A., Leveridge, B.E., 1987, Tectonic environment of the Devonian Gramscatho basin, Cornwall: frame work mode and geochemical evidence from turbiditic sandstones. Journal geologcal Society London, 144, 531–542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franzinelli, E., Potter, P.E., 1983, Petrology, chemistry, and texture of modern river sands, Amazon River System. Journal of Geology, 91, 23–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganju, P.N. and Srivastava, V.K., 1962, Occurrence of greywacke in the Lower Siwaliks, Simla Hills. Nature, 194, 566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gansser, A., 1964, Geology of Himalayas. Interscience Publisher, 289 p.

  • Garrels, R.M. and Christ, C.L., 1965, Solutions, minerals and equilibria. Freemen, Cooper, San Francisco, 450 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garver, J.I. and Scott, T.J., 1995, Trace elements in shale as indicators of crustal provenance and terrain accretion in south Canadian Cordillera. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 107, 440–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garzanti, E., Critelli, S., Ingersoll, R., 1996, Paleogeographic and paleotectonic evolution of the Himalayan Range as reflected by detrital modes of Tertiary sandstones and modern sands (Indus transect, India and Pakistan). Geological Society America Bulletin, 108(6), 631–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, G.M., 1971, Interpretation of X-ray diffraction data, In: Carve, R.E. (ed.), Procedures in Sedimentary Petrology. New York, Wiley, 541–569.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gromet, L.P., Silver, L.T., 1983, Rare-Earth Element distribution among minerals in a granodiorite and their petrogenetic implications. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 47, 925–940.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gromet, L.P., Dymek, R.F., Haskin, L.A. and Korotev, R.L., 1984, The North American shale composite: Its compilation and major and trace element characteristics. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 48, 2469–2482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herron, M.M., 1988, Geochemical classification of terrigenous sands and shales from core or log data. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 58, 820–829.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krynine, P.D., 1937, Petrography and genesis of the Siwalik series. American Journal of Science, 34, 422–446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maynard, J.B., Valloni, R., Yu, H.S., 1982, Composition of modern deepsea sands arc related basins: In LEGGETT, J.K (ed.). Trench forearc geology: Sedimentation and tectonics on modern and ancient active plate margin. Geological Society London Special Publication, 10, 551–561.

  • McLennan, S.M., 1984, Petrological characteristics of Archean greywackes. Jour. Sed. Petrol., 54, 889–898.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLennan, S.M., 1989, Rare earth elements in sedimentary rocks: Influence of provenance and sedimentary processes. Review Mineralogy, 21, 170–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLennan, S.M., Nance, W.B. and Taylor, W.B., 1980, Rare-Earth Element-thorium correlations in sedimentary rocks, and the composition of the continental crust. Geochimca et Cosmochimca Acta, 44, 1833–1839.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLennan, S.M., Hemming, S., McDaniel, D.K. and Hanson, G.N., 1993, Geochemical approaches to sedimentation, provenance and tectonics. In: Johnsson, M. J., Basu, A. (eds.), Processes Controlling the Composition of Clastic Sediments. Geological Society America Special Paper, 284, 21–40.

  • McLennan, S.M. and Taylor, J.R., 1991, Sedimentary rocks and crustal evolution: Tectonic setting and secular trends. Journal of Geology, 99, 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murali, A.V., Parthasarathy, R., Mahadevan, T.M. and Sankar Das, M., 1983, Trace element characteristics, REE patterns and partition coefficients of zircons from different geological environments —A case study on Indian zircons. Geochimca et Cosmochimca Acta, 47, 2047–2052.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nance, W.B. and Taylor, S.R., 1976, Rare earth patterns and crustal evolution I: Australian post- Archean sedimentary rocks. Geochimca et Cosmochimca Acta, 40, 1539–1551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nesbitt, H.W., Markovics, G. and Price, R.C., 1980, Chemical processes affecting Alkalies and alkaline earths during continental weathering. Geochimca et Cosmochimca Acta, 44, 1659–1666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nesbitt, H.W. and Young, G.M., 1982, Early proterozoic climates and plate motions inferred from major element chemistry of luties. Nature, 299, 715–717

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nesbitt, H.W. and Young, G.M., 1984, Prediction of some weathering trends of plutonic and volcanic rocks based on thermodynamic and kinetic considerations. Geochimca et Cosmochimca Acta, 48, 1523–1534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nesbitt, H.W. and Young, G.M., 1989, Formation and diagenesis of weathering profiles. Journal of Geology, 97, 129–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E. and Siever, R., 1972, Sand and sandstone. Springer-Verlag, New York, 618 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, P.E., 1978, Petrology and chemistry of big river sands. Journal of Geology, 86, 423–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parkash, B., Bajpai, I.P. and Saxena, H.P., 1974, Sedimentary structures and palaeocurrents of the Siwalik exposed between the Yamuna and Gola rivers, U.P. (India). Geological Magazine, III, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raju, A.T.R. and Dehadrai, P.V., 1962, Clastic deposition of Siwalik sediments. Current Science, 31, 494–495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rollinson, H.R., 1993, Using Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Presentation, Interpretation, Longman, 352 p.

  • Roser, B.P. and Korsch, R.J., 1986, Determination of tectonic setting of sandstone-mudstone suites using SiO2 content and K2O/Na2O ratio. Journal of Geology, 94, 635–650.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sahni, M.R. and Mathur, L.P., 1964, Stratigraphy of the Siwalik Group. Proceeding XXII International Geological Congress, 1–24.

  • Schwab, F.L., 1975, Frame work mineralogy and chemical composition of continental margin-type sandstones. Geology, 3, 487–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shao, L., Stattegger, K. and Garbe-Schoenberg, C.D., 2001, Sandstone petrology and geochemistry of the Turpan basin. Journal of Sedimentary Research. 71, 37–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Srikantia, S.V. and Bhargava, O.N., 1998, Geology of the Himachal Pradesh. Geological Society of India, Special Publication, 124–137.

  • Tandon, S.K., 1972, Shape analysis of Middle and Upper Siwalik sediments around Ramnagar, District, Nainital Kumaun Himalaya. Journal Indian Academy Geosciences, 14, 61–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tandon, S.K., 1976, Siwalik sedimentation in a part of Kumaun Himalaya. Sedimentary Geology. 16, 131–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S.R. and McLennan, S.M., 1981, The composition and evolution of the continental crust rare earth element evidence from sedimentary rocks. Philos. Transaction Royal Society, A301, 381–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S.R. and McLennan, S.M., 1985, The Continental Crust: Its composition and Evolution. Blackwell, Oxford, 312 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S.R. and McLennan, S.M., 1995, The geochemical evolution of the continental crust. Review Geophysics, 33, 241–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vital, H. and Stattegger, K. and Garbe-Schonberg, C.D., 1999, Composition and trace-element geochemistry of detrital clay and heavy mineral suites of the lowermost Amazon river: a provenance study. Journal Sedimentary Research, 69, 563–575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vital, H. and Stattegger, K., 2000, Major and trace elements of stream sediments from the Amazon River. Chemical Geology, 168, 151–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wronkiewicz, D.J. and Condie, K.C., 1987, Geochemistry of Archean shales from Withwatersrand Supergroup, South Africa: Source-area weathering and provenance. Geochimca et Cosmochimca Acta, 51, 2401–2416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wronkiewicz, D.J. and Condie, K.C., 1989, Geochemistry and provenance of sediments from the Pangola Supergroup, South Africa: Evidence for a 3.0 Ga-old continental craton. Geochimca et Cosmochimca Acta, 53, 1537–1549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre of Advanced study in Geology, Panjab University, 160014, Chandigarh, India

    Brijraj K. Das

  2. Institute of Biogeochemistry and Marine Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Bundesstrasse 55, D-20146, Hamburg, Germany

    Birgit-Gaye Haake

Authors
  1. Brijraj K. Das
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Birgit-Gaye Haake
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brijraj K. Das.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Das, B.K., Haake, BG. Geochemistry of Rewalsar Lake sediment, Lesser Himalaya, India: implications for source-area weathering, provenance and tectonic setting. Geosci J 7, 299–312 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02919560

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02919560

Key words

Search

Navigation