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Zoanthid diversity (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) in the Galapagos Islands: a molecular examination

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Abstract

Although the Galapagos are famous for their unique biodiversity, many groups of marine invertebrates from this isolated archipelago remain understudied or not investigated. One such group is the zoanthids (Order Zoantharia, =Zoanthidea, =Zoanthiniaria), anthozoans (Cnidaria) found in marine ecosystems worldwide. Zoanthid taxonomy has been in a state of disorganization and neglect due in large part to the morphological plasticity within species and questions about the accuracy of traditionally used morphological and ecological characteristics. However, recent studies utilizing molecular methodology combined with morphology have proven to be very useful in understanding zoanthid diversity. The results of a survey of zoanthids from the Galapagos and the east Pacific are reported in this study. Shallow water (<35 m) zoanthid specimens were identified using the molecular markers mitochondrial 16S ribosomal DNA (mt 16S rDNA), cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene, and the internal transcribed spacer of ribosomal DNA (ITS-rDNA). From the collected specimens seven putative zoanthid species-level clades from three known genera (Zoanthus, Palythoa, Parazoanthus) were identified at the molecular level. These identifications were further supported by morphological and ecological data. While almost all specimens belonged to known zoanthid genera, based on unique molecular and ecological data one group of specimens (designated unknown zoanthid sp. “03-103”) is potentially a novel undescribed genus. Additionally, the remaining three azooxanthellate Parazoanthus clades may also be undescribed new species, but due to the overall lack of zoanthid research and descriptions from neighboring areas (East Pacific, west coast of South America) further research is needed to clearly ascertain this. Additionally, notes on the four observed nominal azooxanthellate zoanthid species and a key to all eight nominal (seven from known genera, one from a potentially new genus) shallow water zoanthid species found thus far in the Galapagos Islands are provided.

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Acknowledgments

Graham Edgar, Angel Chiriboga, Luis Vinueza, and William C. Ober generously helped with sampling and photography. CPH is indebted to the staff of the Biomarine Laboratory of the Charles Darwin Research Station (Pto. Ayora, Santa Cruz Island) for logistical field help. The captain and crew of the Mabel (December 2004), the Flamingo (January 2003), the Golindrina (November 2003), the San Jose (May 2002), and the Beagle III (June 2001) helped make sampling possible. JDR thanks Dr. Kiyotaka Takishita, as well as Masoru Kawato and Dr. Hirokazu Kuwahara (all JAMSTEC), for research assistance. Specimen collection during the 2006 and 2007 trips were partially funded by the Darwin Initiative Project. JDR was additionally partially financed by a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science post-doctoral fellowship (#P04868) at JAMSTEC (Yokosuka, Japan), the 21st Century Center of Excellence Program (COE) at the University of the Ryukyus, and a grant from the Fujiwara Natural History Foundation (Tokyo, Japan). Three anonymous reviewers greatly helped improve this manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science, Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, 1 Senbaru, Nishihara, Okinawa, 903-0213, Japan

    J. D. Reimer & F. Sinniger

  2. Research Program for Marine Biology and Ecology, Extremobiosphere Research Center, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), 2-15 Natsushima, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, 237-0061, Japan

    J. D. Reimer

  3. Biological Institute on Kuroshio, 560 Nishidomari, Otsuki, Kochi, 788-0333, Japan

    J. D. Reimer

  4. Department of Biology, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA

    C. P. Hickman Jr.

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  1. J. D. Reimer
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  2. F. Sinniger
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  3. C. P. Hickman Jr.
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Correspondence to J. D. Reimer.

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Communicated by: Biology Editor Dr. Ruth Gates.

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Reimer, J.D., Sinniger, F. & Hickman, C.P. Zoanthid diversity (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) in the Galapagos Islands: a molecular examination. Coral Reefs 27, 641–654 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-008-0376-5

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-008-0376-5

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