Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Presence of parasitic protozoa and helminth in sewage and efficiency of sewage treatment in Tunisia

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Parasitology Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Helminth eggs and protozoan cysts were enumerated in raw and treated wastewater in Tunisia in order to determine their removal by wastewater treatment and to provide quantitative data for developing regulations for wastewater quality that are currently lacking. Raw and treated wastewater samples were collected from 17 plants in Tunisia during 2006–2007 and analyzed for parasites using the modified Bailenger method. Two groups of parasites, namely, Ascaris sp., Entamoeba coli, Enterobius vermicularis, and Taenia sp. (group 1) and Entamoeba histolytica/dispar, Giardia sp., and Taenia sp. (group 2) could statistically be distinguished according to their removal by wastewater treatment. Group 1 parasites were removed by 1.1 log10 (92.4%) and group 2 parasites by 0.61 log10 (76%). The ubiquitous presence of parasitic protozoa in Tunisian wastewater and ineffective wastewater treatment lead to their proliferation in surface waters with a high probability of exposure of human and animals to these parasites and consequent adverse health effects, as is apparent from epidemiologic data as well. This study provides a quantitative basis for risk assessment studies and development of mitigation strategies, such as improving wastewater treatment efficiency.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adam RD (2001) Biology of Giardia lamblia. Clin Microbiol Rev 14:447–475

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alouini Z (1993) Flux de la charge parasitaire dans 5 stations d'épuration en Tunisie. Rev Sci Eau 6:453–462

    Google Scholar 

  • Alouini Z (1994) Efficacité relative des procédés de traitement dans l'élimination de la charge parasitaire des eaux usées. Séminaire sur l'utilisation des eaux salées et usées en agriculture à Nabeul, pp. 202-216

  • Alouini Z (1998) Devenir des œufs et des kystes de parasites au cours d'un cycle d'épuration de la station Cherguia à Tunis. La Houille Blanche 7:60–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amahmid O, Asmama S, Bouhoum K (1999) The effect of wastewater reuse in irrigation on the contamination level of food crops by Giardia cysts and Ascaris eggs. Int J Food Microbiol 49:19–26

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben Ayed L, Alouini Z, Jemli M, Sabbahi S (2007) Evaluation de la qualité parasitologique des eaux usées et des boues résiduaires en Tunisie. Environnement, Risques et Santé 6(6):433–442

    Google Scholar 

  • Blum D, Feachem RG (1985) Health aspects of night soil and sludge use in agriculture. Part III: an epidemiological perspective. Dubendorf, International Reference Centre for Waste Disposal. Report no. 05/85

  • Bouratbine A, Aoun K, Siala E, Chahed MK, Ben Hassine L, Meherzi A (2000) Pour une meilleure estimation de la prévalence du parasitisme intestinal dans la région de Tunis. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 93:353–355

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell AT, Robertson LJ, Snowball MR, Smith HV (1995) Inactivation of oocysts of Cryptosporidium. parvum by ultraviolet irradiation. Water Res 29:2583–2586

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Casson LW, Sorber CA, Sykora JL, Gavaghan PD, Shapiro MA, Jakubowski W (1990) Giardia in wastewater—effect of treatment. Res J Water Pollut Control Fed 62:670–675

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaker E, Bel Hadj S, Khaled S, Ben Moussa M, Ben Rachid MS (1995) Les parasitoses digestives, problème toujours d'actualité. La Tunisie Médicale 73:53–56

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chesnot T, Schwartzbrod J (2004) Quantitative and qualitative comparison of density-based purification methods for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in turbid environmental matrices. J Microbiol Methods 58:375–386

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clancy JL, Marshall MM, Hargy TM, Korich DG (2004) Susceptibility of five strains of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts to ultraviolet light disinfection. J Am Water Works Assoc 96:84–93

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cox DC, Hinkley DV (1974) Theoretical statistics. Chapman and Hall, London

    Google Scholar 

  • DuPont HL, ChappeIl CL, Sterling CR, Okhuysen PC, Rose JB, Jakubowski W (1995) The infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy volunteers. N Engl J Med 332:855–859

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • El Guamri Y, Belghyti D (2007) Charge parasitaire des eaux usées brutes de la ville de Kénitra (Maroc). Afrique Science 3:123–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Erdogrul O, Sener H (2005) The contamination of various fruit and vegetable with Enterobius vermicularis, Ascaris eggs, Entamoeba histoytica cysts and Giardia cysts. Food Control 16:559–562

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faby JA, Brissaud F (1997) La réutilisation des eaux usées épurées dans les schémas directeurs d'assainissement et dans certains cas, pour économiser l'eau. Environnement et technique 168:35–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaspard P (1995) Contamination parasitaire dans l'environnement : prospective pour une gestion des risques sanitaires. Thèse Université Henri Poincaré, Nancy I

    Google Scholar 

  • Gassman L, Schwartzbrod J (1991) Wastewater and Giardia cysts. Water Sci Technol 24:183–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Gati AE (1992) La cryptosporidiose : diagnostic parasitologique, infections naturelles chez 11 espèces animales et chez l'Homme et étude des effets de l'immunodéficience et de l'immunostimulation expérimentales chez le laperau. Doctorat d'état. Faculté des Sciences de l'université Caddi Ayyad, Marrakech

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimason AM, Smith HV, Thitai WN, Smith PG, Jackson MH, Gordwood RWA (1993) The occurrence and removal of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts and Giardia spp. cysts in Kenyan waste stabilisation ponds. Water Sci Technol 27:97–104

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hijnen WAM, Beerendank EF, Medema GJ (2006) Inactivation credit of UV radiation for viruses, bacteria and protozoan (oo) cysts in water: a review. Water Res 40:3–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ho BSW, Tam TY (1998) Giardia and Cryptosporidium. in sewage contaminated river waters. Water Res 32:2860–2864

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jakubowski W, Sykora JL, Sorber CA, Casson LW, Gavaghan PD (1991) Determining giardiasis prevalence by examination of sewage. Water Sci Technol 24:173–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Jimenez B (2007) Helminth ova removal from wastewater for agriculture and aquaculture reuse. Water Sci Technol 55:485–493

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karanis P, Kimura A (2002) Evaluation of three flocculation methods for the purification of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from water samples. Lett Appl Microbiol 34:444–449

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kato S, Fogarty E, Bowman D (2003) Effect of anaerobic and aerobic digestion on the viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and Ascaris suum eggs. Int J Environ Health Res 13:169–179

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kluste A, Baleux B (1995) Elimination des œufs de nématodes et des kystes de protozoaires des eaux usées domestiques par lagunage à microphytes en zone soudano-sahélienne. Rev Sci Eau 8:563–577

    Google Scholar 

  • Li D, Craik SA, Smith DW, Belosevic M (2005) The infectivity of Giardia lamblia cysts in wastewater effluents before and after UV treatment. Disinfect 11:983–993

    Google Scholar 

  • Linden KG. Oliver JD, Sobsey MD, Shin GA (2004) Fate and persistence of pathogens subjected to ultraviolet light and chlorine disinfection. Final Report: Water Environment Research Foundation, Project 98-HHE-2, Alexandria, VA

  • Mara DD, Cairncross S (1989) Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture and aquaculture. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Monis PT, Thompson RCA (2003) Cryptosporidium and Giardia—zoonoses: fact or fiction? Infection, Genetics and Evolution 3:233–244

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nsom Zamo AC, Belghyti D, Lyagoubi M, Elkharim K (2003) Analyse parasitologique des eaux usées brutes d'un effluent urbain de la ville haute (commune de Maamora, Kénitra, Maroc). Cahiers d'études et de recherches francophones. Santé 13:269–272

    Google Scholar 

  • ONAS (Office National d'Assainissement) (2006) Rapport annuel d'exploitation des stations d'épurations.

  • Panicker PVRC, Krishnamoorthi KP (1978) Studies on intestinal helminthic eggs and protozoan cysts in sewage. Indian J Environ Health 20:75–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson LJ, Smith HV, Paton CA (1995) Occurrence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in sewage influent in six sewage treatment plants in Scotland and prevalence of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in the communities served by those plants, pp 47–49. In: Betts WB, Casemore D, Fricker C, Smith H, Watkins J (eds) Protozoan parasites and water. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson LJ, Smith PG, Grimason AT, Smith HV (1999) Removal and destruction of intestinal parasitic protozoan by sewage treatment processes. Int J Environ Health Res 9:85–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson LJ, Hermansen L, Gjerde BK (2006) Occurrence of Cryptosporidium. oocysts and Giardia cysts in sewage in Norway. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:5297–5303

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose JB, Gerba CP, Jakubowski W (1991) Survey of potable water supplies for Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Environ Sci Technol 25:1393–1400

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saadi M, Rejeb-Frigui A, Dhidah M, Ferjani H (1996) Etude de cas sur la parasitologie des selles comme critère de surveillance d'une population agricole utilisant les eaux usées traitées. Microbiologie Hygiène Alimentaire 8:25–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartzbord J, Strauss M (1989) Devenir des kystes de Giardia au cours d'un cycle d'épuration. TSM L'eau 84:331–334

    Google Scholar 

  • Stien JL, Schwartzbrod J (1988) Flux d'oeufs d'helminthes parasites dans les stations d'épuration par boues activées. TSM L'eau 10:495–498

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss M (1985) Survival of excreted pathogens in excreta and faecal sludges. IRCWD News 23:4–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Sykora GL, Sorber CA, Jakubowski W, Casson LW, Gavaghan PD, Shapiro M (1991) Distribution of Giardia cysts in wastewater. Wat Sci Tech 24:187–192

    Google Scholar 

  • Teunis PFM, van der Heijden OG, van der Giessen JWB, Havelaar AH (1996) The dose-response relation in human volunteers for gastro-intestinal pathogens. National Institute of Public Health Environ 284550002, Bilthoven, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiandt S, Baleux B, Casllas C, Bontoux J (1995) Occurrence of Giardia sp. cysts during a wastewater treatment by a stabilization pond in south of France. Wat Sci Tech 31:257–265

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wiandt S, Baleux B, Bontoux J (1998) Efficiency of certain wastewater treatment plants to remove Giardia sp. cysts. J Europ Hydrol 28:283–296

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organisation (1997) Analyse des eaux résiduaires en vue de leur recyclage en agriculture. Manuel des techniques de laboratoire en parasitologie et bactériologie, Genève

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratoire de parasitologie des eaux usées et des boues résiduaires, Institut National de Recherche en Génie Rural, Eaux, et Forêts. Rue Hédi Karray, BP no. 10, 2080, Ariana, Tunis, Tunisia

    L. Ben Ayed, Z. Alouini, M. Jemli & S. Sabbahi

  2. Laboratoire Sciences et Techniques de l’Eau, Institut Agronomique de Tunisie, 43 Avenue Charles Nicolle, 1082, Mahrajène, Tunis, Tunisia

    L. Ben Ayed

  3. Expert Centre for Methodology and Information Services, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands

    J. Schijven

Authors
  1. L. Ben Ayed
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. Schijven
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Z. Alouini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. Jemli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. S. Sabbahi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to L. Ben Ayed.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ben Ayed, L., Schijven, J., Alouini, Z. et al. Presence of parasitic protozoa and helminth in sewage and efficiency of sewage treatment in Tunisia. Parasitol Res 105, 393–406 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-009-1396-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-009-1396-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation