Abstract
Defensive modifications in prey traits that reduce predation risk can also have negative effects on prey fitness. Such nonconsumptive effects (NCEs) of predators are common, often quite strong, and can even dominate the net effect of predators. We develop an intuitive graphical model to identify and explore the conditions promoting strong NCEs. The model illustrates two conditions necessary and sufficient for large NCEs: (1) trait change has a large cost, and (2) the benefit of reduced predation outweighs the costs, such as reduced growth rate. A corollary condition is that potential predation in the absence of trait change must be large. In fact, the sum total of the consumptive effects (CEs) and NCEs may be any value bounded by the magnitude of the predation rate in the absence of the trait change. The model further illustrates how, depending on the effect of increased trait change on resulting costs and benefits, any combination of strong and weak NCEs and CEs is possible. The model can also be used to examine how changes in environmental factors (e.g., refuge safety) or variation among predator–prey systems (e.g., different benefits of a prey trait change) affect NCEs. Results indicate that simple rules of thumb may not apply; factors that increase the cost of trait change or that increase the degree to which an animal changes a trait, can actually cause smaller (rather than larger) NCEs. We provide examples of how this graphical model can provide important insights for empirical studies from two natural systems. Implementation of this approach will improve our understanding of how and when NCEs are expected to dominate the total effect of predators. Further, application of the models will likely promote a better linkage between experimental and theoretical studies of NCEs, and foster synthesis across systems.
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Acknowledgments
This manuscript was improved by constructive comments on earlier versions from Peter Abrams, Clay Cressler, Chris Klausmeier, Earl Werner, Scott Creel and his students, Craig Osenberg, and several anonymous reviewers. This work was conducted as part of the “Does Fear Matter?” Working Group supported by the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, a Center funded by NSF (Grant #DEB-0072909), the University of California, and the Santa Barbara Campus. S.D.P. acknowledges support from NSF grant OCE-0826020 and support from the Michigan Agricultural Experimental Station. J.R.V. acknowledges support from NSF grant DEB-0717220 and G.C.T. acknowledges NSF grant OCE-0727628.
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Communicated by Craig Osenberg.
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Peacor, S.D., Peckarsky, B.L., Trussell, G.C. et al. Costs of predator-induced phenotypic plasticity: a graphical model for predicting the contribution of nonconsumptive and consumptive effects of predators on prey. Oecologia 171, 1–10 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-012-2394-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-012-2394-9