Abstract
The explosive eruption of kimberlite magma is capable of producing a variety of pyroclast sizes, shapes, and textures. However, all pyroclastic deposits of kimberlite comprise two main types of pyroclasts: (1) pyroclasts of kimberlite with or without enclosed olivine crystals and (2) olivine crystals which lack coatings of kimberlite. Here, we propose two hypotheses for how kimberlite magmas are modified due to explosive eruption: (1) olivine crystals break during kimberlite eruption, and (2) kimberlite melt can be efficiently separated from crystals during eruption. These ideas are tested against data collected from field study and image analysis of coherent kimberlite and fragmental kimberlite from kimberlite pipes at Diavik, NT. Olivines are expected to break because of rapid pressure changes during the explosive eruption. Disruption of kimberlite magma, and pyroclast production, is driven by ductile deformation processes, rather than by brittle fragmentation. The extent to which melt separates from olivine crystals to produce kimberlite-free crystals is a direct consequence of the relative proportions of gas, melt and crystals. Lastly, the properties of juvenile pyroclasts in deposits of pyroclastic kimberlite are used to index the relative intensity of kimberlite eruptions. A fragmentation index is proposed for kimberlite eruption based on: (a) crystal size distributions of olivine and on (b) ratios of selvage-free olivine pyroclasts to pyroclasts of kimberlite with or without olivine crystals.
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Notes
There are many two-parameter model equations which appear similar over small ranges of observation (e.g. gamma, power, log-normal) (Bonnet et al. 2001; Clauset et al. 2007). Here, power–law equations of the form N v (X ≥ x) = λx −D are used to approximate, rather than describe, olivine crystal populations after Moss et al. (2010).
Kelvin–Helmholz shear instabilities form asymmetric waves at the boundary between gas and liquid of wavelength; \( query \lambda = \delta \sqrt {{\rho \,/\,{\rho_g}}} \), where λ is the wavelength, δ is the boundary layer thickness, ρ is the density of the liquid, and ρ g is gas density.
Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities form as a transverse destabilization of existing waveforms, due to accelerations imposed on the liquid–gas interface by the passage of primary undulations. Such transverse waveforms have a wavelength: \( {\lambda_{ \bot }}/\delta \cong 3W{e_{\delta }}^{{ - 1/3}}{(\rho /{\rho_g})^{{1/3}}} \), with \( W{e_{\delta }} = {\rho_g}{(\Delta v)^2}\delta /\gamma \), where ∆v is the relative gas velocity.
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Acknowledgements
This research was funded by an NSERC Collaborative Research and Development Grant (22R42415) held by J.K. Russell and sponsored by RioTinto Diavik Diamond Mine, Inc. (DDMI), entitled Kimberlite Eruption Dynamics: Implications for Diamond Distribution in the Diavik Kimberlite. We gratefully acknowledge critical reviews by RSJ Sparks, Richie Brown, Alison Rust, and James White, as well as constructive conversations with Barbara Scott Smith, Lucy Porritt, and Bram van Straaten.
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This paper constitutes part of a special issue: Cas RAF, Russell JK, Sparks RSJ (eds) Advances in kimberlite volcanology and geology.
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Moss, S., Russell, J.K. Fragmentation in kimberlite: products and intensity of explosive eruption. Bull Volcanol 73, 983–1003 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-011-0504-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-011-0504-x