Abstract
Sponges have been experimentally farmed for over 100 years, with early attempts done in the sea to supply “bath sponges”. During the last 20 years, sponges have also been experimentally cultured both in the sea and in tanks on land for their biologically active metabolites, some of which have pharmaceutical potential. Sea-based farming studies have focused on developing good farming structures and identifying the optimal environmental conditions that promote production of bath sponges or bioactive metabolites. The ideal farming structure will vary between species and regions, but will generally involve threading sponges on rope or placing them inside mesh. For land-based sponge culture, most research has focused on determining the feeding requirements that promote growth. Many sea- and land-based studies have shown that sponges grow quickly, often doubling in size every few months. Other favorable results and interesting developments include partially harvesting farmed sponges to increase biomass yields, seeding sexually reproduced larvae on farming structures, using sponge farms as large biofilters to control microbial populations, and manipulating culture conditions to promote metabolite biosynthesis. Even though some results are promising, land-based culture needs further research and is not likely to be commercially feasible in the near future. Sea-based culture still holds great promise, with several small-scale farming operations producing bath sponges or metabolites. The greatest potential for commercial bath sponge culture is probably for underdeveloped coastal communities, where it can provide an alternative and environmentally friendly source of income.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams C, Stevely J, Sweat D (1995) Economic feasibility of small-scale sponge farming in Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. J World Aquac Soc 26:132–142
Ayling AL (1983) Growth and regeneration rates in thinly encrusting Demospongiae from temperate waters. Biol Bull 165:343–352
Barthel D, Theede H (1986) A new method for the culture of marine sponges and its application for experimental studies. Ophelia 25:75–82
Belarbi EH, Dominguez MR, Carcia MCC, Gómez AC, Camacho G, Grima EM (2003) Cultivation of explants of the marine sponge Crambe crambe in closed systems. Biomolecular Engineering 20:333–337
Bergquist PR (1978) Sponges. University of California Press, Berkeley
Blunt JW, Copp BR, Hu WP, Munro MHG, Northcote PT, Prinsep MR (2009) Marine natural products: review. Nat Prod Rep 26:170–244
Cheshire AC, Butler AJ, Westphalen G, Rowland B, Steveson J, Wilkinson CR (1995) Preliminary study of the distribution and photophysiology of the temperate phototrophic sponge Cymbastela sp. from South Australia. Mar Freshw Res 46:1211–1216
Corriero G, Longo C, Mercurio M, Marzano CN, Lembo G, Spedicato MT (2004) Rearing performance of Spongia officinalis on suspended ropes off the Southern Italian Coast (Central Mediterranean Sea). Aquaculture 238:195–205
Crawshay LR (1939) Studies in the market sponges. I. Growth from the planted cutting. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 23:553–574
de Caralt S, Otjens H, Uriz MJ, Wijffels RH (2007) Cultivation of sponge larvae: settlement, survival, and growth of juveniles. Mar Biotechnol 9:592–605
de Garalt S, Agell G, Uriz MJ (2003) Long-term culture of sponge explants: conditions enhancing survival and growth, and assessment of bioactivity. Biomolecular Engineering 20:339–347
de Voogd NJ (2007) The mariculture potential of the Indonesian reef-dwelling sponge Callyspongia (Euplacella) biru: growth, survival and bioactive compounds. Aquaculture 262:54–64
Dubios R (1914) Spongiculture par essaimage. IX Congres International de Zoologie de Monaco, Obertur, Rennes, pp 659–660
Duckworth AR (2003) Effect of wound size on the growth and regeneration of two temperate subtidal sponges. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 287:139–153
Duckworth AR, Battershill CN (2003a) Developing farming structures for production of biologically active sponge metabolites. Aquaculture 217:139–156
Duckworth AR, Battershill CN (2003b) Sponge aquaculture for the production of biologically active metabolites: the influence of farming protocols and the environment. Aquaculture 221:311–329
Duckworth AR, Pomponi SA (2005) Relative importance of bacteria, microalgae and yeast for growth of the sponge Halichondria melanadocia (De Laubenfels, 1936): a laboratory study. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 323:151–159
Duckworth AR, Wolff CW (2007) Bath sponge aquaculture in Torres Strait, Australia: effect of explant size, farming method and the environment on culture success. Aquaculture 271:188–195
Duckworth AR, Battershill CN, Bergquist PR (1997) Influence of explant procedures and environmental factors on culture success of three sponges. Aquaculture 156:251–267
Duckworth AR, Battershill CN, Schiel DR (2004) Effects of depth and water flow on growth, survival and bioactivity of two temperate sponges cultured in different seasons. Aquaculture 242:237–250
Duckworth AR, Wolff C, Evans-Illidge E (2007) Developing methods for commercially farming bath sponges in tropical Australia. In: Custódio MR, Hajdu E, Lôbo-Hajdu G, Muricy G (eds) Porifera Research: Biodiversity, Innovation and Sustainability. Rio de Janeiro Museu Nacional, pp 297–302
Duckworth AR, Samples GA, Wright AE, Pomponi SA (2003) In vitro culture of the tropical sponge Axinella corrugata (Demospongiae): effect of food cell concentration on growth, clearance rate, and biosynthesis of stevensine. Mar Biotechnol 5:519–527
Duckworth AR, Brück WM, Janda KE, Pitts TP, McCarthy PJ (2006) Retention efficiencies of the coral reef sponges Aplysina lacunosa, Callyspongia vaginalis and Niphates digitalis determined by Coulter counter and plate culture analysis. Mar Biol Res 2:243–248
FAO (2004) Collation, analysis and dissemination of global and regional fishery statistics. Food and Agricuture Organisation, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit, Rome
Ferretti C (2006) Aquaculture of two Mediterranean sponge species for bioactive molecules production. Dipartimento per lo Studio del Territorio e delle sue Risorse
Ferretti C, Vacca S, de Ciucis C, Marengo B, Duckworth AR, Manconi R, Pronzato R, Domenicotti C (2009) Growth dynamics and bioactivity variation of the Mediterranean demosponges Agelas oroides (Agelasida, Agelasidae) and Petrosia ficiformis (Haplosclerida, Petrosiidae). Marine Ecology (in press)
Gaino E, Pronzato R (1989) Ultrastructural evidence of bacterial damage to Spongia officinalis fibres (Porifera, Demospongiae). Dis Aquat Org 6:67–74
Garcia Camacho E, Chileh T, Cerón García MC, Sánchez Mirón A, Belarbi EH, Chisti Y, Molina Crima E (2006a) A bioreaction-diffusion model for growth of marine sponge explants in bioreactors. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 73:525–532
Garcia Camacho F, Chileh T, Cerón García MC, Sánchez Mirón A, Belarbi EH, Contreras Gómez A, Molina Crima E (2006b) Sustained growth of explants from Mediterranean sponge Crambe crambe cultured in vitro with enriched RPMI 1640. Biotechnol Prog 22:781–790
Hadas E, Shpigel M, Ilan M (2005) Sea ranching of the marine sponge Negombata magnifica (Demospongiae, Latrunculiidae) as a first step for latrunculin B mass production. Aquaculture 244:159–169
Handley SJ, Kelly S, Kelly M (2003) Non-destructive video image analysis method for measuring growth in sponge farming: preliminary results from the New Zealand bath-sponge Spongia (Heterofibria) manipulatus. NZ J Mar Freshwat Res 37:613–621
Handley SJ, Page MJ, Northcote PT (2006) Anti-cancer sponge: the race is on for aquaculture supply. Water Atmos 14:14–15
Hummel H, Sepers ABJ, de Wolf L, Melissen FW (1988) Bacterial growth on the marine sponge Halichondria panicea induced by reduced waterflow rate. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 42:195–198
Jokiel PL (1980) Solar ultraviolet radiation and coral reef epifauna. Science 207:1069–1071
Kelly M, Handley SJ, Page MJ, Butterfield P, Hartill B, Kelly S (2004) Aquaculture trials of the New Zealand bath-sponge Spongia (Heterofibria) manipulatus using lanterns. NZ J Mar Freshwat Res 38:231–241
Kreuter MH, Robitzki AR, Chang S, Steffen R, Michaelis M, Kljajic Z, Bachmann M, Schröder HC, Müller WEG (1992) Production of the cytostatic agent aeroplysinin by the sponge Verongia aerophoba in in vitro culture. Comp Biochem Physiol C Pharmacol Toxicol Endocrinol 101:183–187
Lauckner G (1980) Diseases of Porifera. In: Kinne O (ed) Diseases of marine animals. Wiley, Chichester, pp 139–165
Leichter JJ, Witman JD (1997) Water flow over subtidal rock walls: relation to distributions and growth rates of sessile suspension feeders in the Gulf of Maine. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 209:293–307
Louden D, Whalan S, Evans-Illidge E, Wolff C, de Nys R (2007) An assessment of the aquaculture potential of the tropical sponges Rhopaloeides odorabile and Coscinoderma sp. Aquaculture 270:57–67
MacMillan SM (1996) Starting a successful commercial sponge aquaculture farm. Center for Tropical and Subtropical Aquaculture, University of Hawaii, Honolulu
Mendola D (2003) Aquaculture of three phyla of marine invertebrates to yield bioactive metabolites: process developments and economics. Biomolecular Engineering 20:441–458
Milanese M, Sarà M, Manconi R, Ben Abdalla A, Pronzato R (2008) Commercial sponge fishing in Libya: historical records, present status and perspectives. Fish Res 89:90–96
Milanese M, Chelossi E, Manconi R, Sarà M, Sidri M, Pronzato R (2003) The marine sponge Chondrilla nucula Schmidt, 1862 as an elective candidate for bioremediation in integrated aquaculture. Biomolecular Engineering 20:363–368
Moore HF (1910) A practical method of sponge culture. Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Fisheries 28(1908, Pt. 1):545–585
Müller WEG, Wimmer W, Schatton W, Böhm M, Batel R, Filic Z (1999) Initiation of an aquaculture of sponges for the sustainable production of bioactive metabolites in open systems: example, Geodia cydonium. Mar Biotechnol 1:569–579
Müller WEG, Grebenjuk VA, Le Pennec G, Schröder HC, Brümmer F, Hentschel U, Müller IM, Breter HJ (2004) Sustainable production of bioactive compounds by sponges-cell culture and gene cluster approach: a review. Mar Biotechnol 6:105–117
Nickel M, Brümmer F (2003) In vitro sponge fragment culture of Chondrosia reniformis (Nardo, 1847). J Biotechnol 100:147–159
Nickel M, Leininger S, Proll G, Brümmer F (2001) Comparative studies on two potential methods for the biotechnological production of sponge biomass. J Biotechnol 92:169–178
OEA (2004) Aquaculture profile for Pohnpei Federated States of Micronesia. Office of Economic Affairs, State of Pohnpei
Osinga R, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (1999a) Cultivation of marine sponges. Mar Biotechnol 1:509–532
Osinga R, Planas Muela E, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (1997) In vitro cultivation of four marine sponge species. Determination of the nutritional demands. In: Le Gal Y, Muller-Feuga A (eds) Marine microorganisms for industry. Ifremer, France, pp 121–127
Osinga R, Belarbi EH, Grima EM, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (2003) Progress towards a controlled culture of the marine sponge Pseudosubertes andrewsi in a bioreactor. J Biotechnol 100:141–146
Osinga R, de Beukelaer P, Meijer EM, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (1999b) Growth of the sponge Pseudosuberites (aff.) andrewsi in a closed system. J Biotechnol 70:155–161
Osinga R, Kleijn R, Groenendijk E, Neiink P, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (2001) Development of in vivo sponge cultures: particle feeding by the tropical sponge Pseudosuberites aff. andrewsi. Mar Biotechnol 3:544–554
Page MJ, Northcote PT, Webb VL, Mackey S, Handley SJ (2005) Aquaculture trials for the production of biologically active metabolites in the New Zealand sponge Mycale hentscheli (Demospongiae: Poecilosclerida). Aquaculture 250:256–269
Palumbi SR (1984) Tactics of acclimation: morphological changes of sponges in an unpredictable environment. Science 295:685–687
Pile AJ, Patterson MR, Witman JD (1996) In situ grazing on plankton <10 µm by the boreal sponge Mycale lingua. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 141:95–102
Pomponi SA (2006) Biology of the Porifera: cell culture. Can J Zool 84:167–174
Pronzato R (1999) Sponge-fishing, disease and farming in the Mediterranean Sea. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 9:485–493
Pronzato R (2004) A climber sponge. Bollettino Dei Musei E Degli Istituti Biologici Dell'Universita Di Genova 68:549–552
Pronzato R, Manconi R (2008) Mediterranean commercial sponges: over 5000 years of natural history and cultural heritage. Marine Ecol 29:146–166
Pronzato R, Bavestrello G, Cerrano C, Magnino G, Manconi R, Pantelis J, Sarà M, Sidri M (1999) Sponge farming in the Mediterranean Sea: new perspectives. Mem Queensl Mus 44:485–491
Reiswig HM (1971) Particle feeding in natural populations of three marine demosponges. Biol Bull 141:568–591
Ribes M, Coma R, Gili JM (1999) Natural diet and grazing rate of the temperate sponge Dysidea avara (Demospongiae, Dendroceratida) throughout an annual cycle. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 176:179–190
Schmitz FJ, Bowden BF, Toth SI (1993) Antitumor and cytotoxic compounds from marine organisms. In: Attaway DH, Zaborsky OR (eds) Marine biotechnology. Pharmaceutical and bioactive natural products. Plenum, New York, pp 197–308
Sebens KP (1987) The ecology of indeterminate growth in animals. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 18:371–407
Sipkema D, Osinga R, Schatton W, Mendola D, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (2005) Large-scale production of pharmaceuticals by marine sponges: sea, cell, or synthesis. Biotechnol Bioeng 90:201–222
Smith FGW (1941) Sponge disease in British Honduras, and its transmission by water currents. Ecology 22:415–421
Storr JF (1957) The sponge industry of Florida. State of Florida, Board of Conservation, Educational Series No. 9
Storr JF (1964) Ecology of the Gulf of Mexico commercial sponges and its relation to the fishery. United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report-Fisheries No. 466
Stuart V, Klumpp DW (1984) Evidence for food-resource partitioning by kelp-bed filter feeders. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 16:27–37
Thompson JE, Murphy PT, Bergquist PR, Evans EA (1987) Environmentally induced variation in diterpene composition of the marine sponge Rhopaloeides odorabile. Biochem Syst Ecol 15:595–606
Van Soest RWM, Boury-Esnault N, Hooper JNA, Rützler K, de Voogd NJ, Alvarez B, Hajdu E, Pisera AB, Vacelet J, Manconi R, Schoenberg C, Janussen D, Tabachnick KR, Klautau M (2008) World Porifera database. Available online at http://www.marinespecies.org/porifera. Consulted on 2009-05-13
van Treeck P, Eisinger M, Müller J, Paster M, Schuhmacher H (2003) Mariculture trials with Mediterranean sponge species: the exploitation of an old natural resource with sustainable and novel methods. Aquaculture 218:439–455
Verdenal B, Vacelet J (1990) Sponge culture on vertical ropes in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea. In: Rützler K (ed) New perspectives in sponge biology. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, pp 416–424
Vogel S (1974) Current-induced flow through the sponge, Halichondria. Biol Bull 147:443–456
Webster NS (2007) Sponge disease: a global threat? Environ Microbiol 9:1363–1375
Wilkinson CR, Vacelet J (1979) Transplantation of marine sponges to different conditions of light and current. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 37:91–104
Yahel G, Sharp JH, Marie D, Häse C, Genin A (2003) In situ feeding and element removal in the symbiont-bearing sponge Theonella swinhoei: bulk DOC is the major carbon source. Limnol Oceanogr 48:141–149
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many people who have supported my research into farming sponges, from providing guidance to helping out in the field. Specifically, I thank Chris Battershill, Dame Patricia Bergquist, Chris Woods, Pete Notman, Shirley Pomponi, Elizabeth Evans-Illidge, Carsten Wolff, John Morris, and Samson Lowatta. I also thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Duckworth, A. Farming Sponges to Supply Bioactive Metabolites and Bath Sponges: A Review. Mar Biotechnol 11, 669–679 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10126-009-9213-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10126-009-9213-2