Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Characterizing the forest fragmentation of Canada’s national parks

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Characterizing the amount and configuration of forests can provide insights into habitat quality, biodiversity, and land use. The establishment of protected areas can be a mechanism for maintaining large, contiguous areas of forests, and the loss and fragmentation of forest habitat is a potential threat to Canada’s national park system. Using the Earth Observation for Sustainable Development of Forests (EOSD) land cover product (EOSD LC 2000), we characterize the circa 2000 forest patterns in 26 of Canada’s national parks and compare these to forest patterns in the ecological units surrounding these parks, referred to as the greater park ecosystem (GPE). Five landscape pattern metrics were analyzed: number of forest patches, mean forest patch size (hectare), standard deviation of forest patch size (hectare), mean forest patch perimeter-to-area ratio (meters per hectare), and edge density of forest patches (meters per hectare). An assumption is often made that forests within park boundaries are less fragmented than the surrounding GPE, as indicated by fewer forest patches, a larger mean forest patch size, less variability in forest patch size, a lower perimeter-to-area ratio, and lower forest edge density. Of the 26 national parks we analyzed, 58% had significantly fewer patches, 46% had a significantly larger mean forest patch size (23% were not significantly different), and 46% had a significantly smaller standard deviation of forest patch size (31% were not significantly different), relative to their GPEs. For forest patch perimeter-to-area ratio and forest edge density, equal proportions of parks had values that were significantly larger or smaller than their respective GPEs and no clear trend emerged. In summary, all the national parks we analyzed, with the exception of the Georgian Bay Islands, were found to be significantly different from their corresponding GPE for at least one of the five metrics assessed, and 50% of the 26 parks were significantly different from their respective GPEs for all of the metrics assessed. The EOSD LC 2000 provides a heretofore unavailable dataset for characterizing broad trends in forest fragmentation in Canada’s national parks and in their surrounding GPEs. The interpretation of forest fragmentation metrics must be guided by the underlying land cover context, as many forested ecosystems in Canada are naturally fragmented due to wetlands and topography. Furthermore, interpretation must also consider the management context, as some parks are designed to preserve fragmented habitats. An analysis of forest pattern such as that described herein provides a baseline, from which changes in fragmentation patterns over time could be monitored, enabled by earth observation data.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bishop, R. (1993). Economic efficiency, sustainability, and biodiversity. Ambio, 22(3/4), 69–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogaert, J., Hecke, P. V., Salvador-Van Eysenrode, D., & Impens, I. (2000). Landscape fragmentation assessment using a single measure. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 28, 875–881.

    Google Scholar 

  • CCFM (1997). Criteria indicators of sustainable forest management in Canada: Technical report 2007. Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (CCFM) Secretariat, Ottawa, Ont. www.ccfm.org/ci/criteria_tech_report97_e.pdf. Accessed 11 June 2008.

  • Cumming, S., & Vervier, P. (2002). Statistical models of landscape pattern metrics, with applications to regional scale dynamic forest simulations. Landscape Ecology, 17, 433–444. doi:10.1023/A:1021261815066.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cushman, S. A., McGarigal, K., & Neel, M. C. (2008). Parsimony in landscape metrics: Strength, universality, and consistency. Ecological Indicators, 8, 691–703. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2007.12.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, C. (1998). Issues in measuring landscape fragmentation. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 26, 32–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dearden, P., & Dempsey, J. (2004). Protected areas in Canada: Decade of change. Canadian Geographer, 48, 224–239. doi:10.1111/j.0008-3658.2004.00057.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ecological Stratification Working Group (1996). A national ecological framework for Canada (125 pp). Ottawa/Hull: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Research Branch, Centre for Land and Biological Resources Research and Environment Canada, State of Environment Directorate. Available online: http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/publications/ecostrat/intro.html.

  • Fahrig, L. (2003). Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 34, 487–515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fleishman, E., & Mac Nally, R. (2007). Measuring the response of animals to contemporary drivers of fragmentation. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 85, 1080–1090. doi:10.1139/Z07-093.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forman, R. T. T., Sperling, D., Bissonette, J. A., Clevenger, A. P., Cutshall, C. D., Dale, V. H., et al. (2002). Road ecology: Science and solutions. Washington, DC: Island.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fortin, M. J., & Dale, M. R. T. (2005). Spatial analysis: A guide for ecologists (365 pp., 1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, S. E., & Wulder, M. A. (2002). Remote sensing methods in medium spatial resolution satellite data land cover classification of large areas. Progress in Physical Geography, 26, 173–205. doi:10.1191/0309133302pp332ra.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, R. H., Turner, M. G., O’Neill, R. V., & Lavorel, S. (1991). Simulation of the scale-dependent effects of landscape boundaries on species persistence and dispersal. In M. M. Holland, P. G. Risser, & R. J. Naiman (Eds.), The role of landscape boundaries on the management and restoration of changing environments (pp. 76–89). NY, New York, USA: Chapman and Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gergel, S. E. (2007). New directions in landscape pattern analysis and linkages with remote sensing. In M. A. Wulder, & S. E. Franklin (Eds.), Understanding forest disturbance and spatial pattern (pp. 173–208). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Government of Canada (2006). National scale frameworks protected areas, Canada. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Natural Resources Canada, The Atlas of Canada. Available online: http://geogratis.gc.ca/download/frameworkdata/protected_areas.

  • Gurd, D. B., Nudds, T. D., & Rivard, D. H. (2001). Conservation of mammals in eastern North American wildlife reserves: How small is too small? Conservation Biology, 16, 1355–1363. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.00188.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, G. E., Strittholt, J. R., Slosser, N. C., & DellaSala, D. A. (2002). Forest fragmentation of the conterminous United States: Assessing forest intactness through road density and spatial characteristics. Bioscience, 52, 411–422. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0411:FFOTCU]2.0.CO;2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hierl, L. A., Franklin, J., Deutschman, D. H., Regan, H. M., & Johnson, B. S. (2008). Assessing and prioritizing ecological communities for monitoring in a regional habitat conservation plan. Environmental Management, 42, 165–179. doi:10.1007/s00267-008-9109-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hudak, A. T., Morgan, P., Bobbitt, M., & Lentile, L. (2007). Characterizing stand-replacing harvest and fire disturbance patches in a forested landscape: A case study from Cooney Ridge, Montana. In M. A. Wulder, & S. E. Franklin (Eds.), Understanding forest disturbance and spatial pattern (pp. 209–231). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huges, J., Fall, A., Safranyik, L., & Lertzman, K. (2006). Modeling the effect of landscape pattern on mountain pine beetle. Victoria, British Columbia: Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre. Information Report BC-X-407.

  • Kupfer, J.A. (2006). National assessments of forest fragmentation in the US. Global Environmental Change, 16(1), 73–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leitao, A. B., Miller, J., Ahern, J., & McGarigal, K. (2006). Measuring landscapes. Washington, DC: Island.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, X., He, H. S., Bu, R., Wen, Q., Chang, Y., Hu, Y., & Li, Y. (2005). The adequacy of different landscape metrics for various landscape patterns. Pattern Recognition, 38, 2626–2638. doi:10.1016/j.patcog.2005.05.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linke, J., Betts, M. G., Lavigne, M. B., & Franklin, S. E. (2007). Structure, function, and change in forest landscape. In M. A. Wulder, & S. E. Franklin (Eds.), Understanding forest disturbance and spatial pattern: Remote sensing and GIS approaches (pp. 1–29). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur, R. H., & Wilson, E. O. (1967). The theory of island biogeography. Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markham, B., & Barker, J. (1986). Landsat MSS and TM post calibration dynamic ranges, exoatmospheric reflectances and at satellite temperature. EOSAT Landsat Technical Note, 3–7.

  • McGarigal, K., & Marks, B. J. (1995). FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. Corvallis, OR: USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR-351.

  • McGarigal, K., Cushman, S. A., Neel, M. C., & Ene, E. (2002). FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern analysis program for categorical maps. Amherst: Com. Software Proj. Univ. Mass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mladenoff, D. J., & Dezonia, B. (2004). APACK 2.23 Analysis software user’s guide version 4-13-04. WI, USA: Department of Forest Ecology and Management, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

    Google Scholar 

  • Narumalani, S., Mishra, D. R., & Rothwell, R. G. (2004). Change detection and landscape metrics for inferring anthropogenic processes in the greater EFMO area. Remote Sensing of Environment, 91, 478–489. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2004.04.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newmark, W. D. (1995). Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Conservation Biology, 9(3), 512–526. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09030512.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parks Canada (1998). State of the parks 1997 report. Ottawa, Canada: Parks Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parks Canada (2000). 1. Unimpaired for future generations? Protecting ecological integrity with Canada’s national parks, 2. Setting a new direction for Canada’s national parks. Report of the panel on the ecological integrity of Canada’s national parks. Ottawa, Canada: Parks Canada.

  • Parks Canada (2007). Performance report for the period ending March 31, 2007 (p. 94). Available online: http://www.pc.gc.ca/docs/pc/rpts/rmr-dpr/archives/2006-07/cap-eng.pdf.

  • Parks Canada (2008). Words to action (p. 56). Available online: http://www.pc.gc.ca/docs/pc/trm-rt/2008/wta-dpa2008_e.pdf.

  • Parks Canada (2009). National parks of Canada: Introduction. http://pc.gc.ca/progs/np-pn/intro_e.asp. Accessed 18 February 2009.

  • Parisien, M. A., Junor, D. R., & Kafka, V. G. (2006). Spatial patterns of forest fires in Canada, 1980–1999. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 15, 361–374. doi:10.1071/WF06009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, S. M., Turner, M. G., Gardner, R. H., & O’Neill, R. V. (1996). An organism perspective of habitat fragmentation. In R. C. Szaro, & D. W. Johnston (Eds.), Biodiversity in managed landscapes: Theory and practice (pp. 77–95). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peddle, D., Teillet, P., & Wulder, M. A. (2003). Radiometric image processing. In M. A. Wulder, & S. E. Franklin (Eds.), Remote sensing of forest environments: Concepts and case studies (pp. 181–208). Boston: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Remmel, T., Csillag, F., Mitchell, S., & Wulder, M. A. (2005). Integration of forest inventory and satellite imagery: A Canadian status assessment and research issue. Forest Ecology and Management, 207, 405–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riitters, K. H., & Wickham, J. D. (2003). How far to the nearest road. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 1, 125–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riitters, K. H., O’Neill, R. V., Hunsaker, C. T., Wickham, J. D., Yankee, D. H., Timmins, S. P., et al. (1995). A factor analysis of landscape pattern and structure metrics. Landscape Ecology, 10, 23–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riitters, K. H., Wickham, J. D., O’Neill, R. V., Jones, K. B., Smith, E. R., Coulston, J. W., et al. (2002). Fragmentation of continental United States forests. Ecosystems (New York, N.Y.), 5, 815–822. doi:10.1007/s10021-002-0209-2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivard, D. H., Poitevin, J., Plasse, D., Carleton, M., & Currie, D. J. (2000). Species richness and composition in Canadian Parks. Conservation Biology, 14, 1099–1109. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98247.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, D., Malcolm, J. R., & Lemieux, C. (2002). Climate change and modelled biome representation in Canada’s national park system: Implications for system planning and park mandates. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 11, 475–484. doi:10.1046/j.1466-822X.2002.00308.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strong, W. L., & Gates, C. C. (2009). Wood bison population recovery and forage availability in northwestern Canada. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, 434–440. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.11.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terborgh, J. (1974). Faunal equilibria and the design of wildlife preserves. In F. B. Golley, & E. Medina (Eds.), Tropical ecological systems (pp. 369–380). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinker, D. B., Resor, C. A. C., Beauvais, G. P., Kipfmueller, K. F., Fernandes, C. I., & Baker, W. L. (1998). Watershed analysis of forest fragmentation by clearcuts and roads in Wyoming forest. Landscape Ecology, 13, 3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trombulak, S. C., & Frissell, C. A. (2000). Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology, 14, 18–30. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99084.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, M. G., Gardner, R. H., & O’Neill, R. V. (2001). Landscape ecology in theory and practice: Pattern and process. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • USDA Forest Service (1997). Report of the United States on the criteria and indicators for the sustainable management of temperate and boreal forests. Washington (DC): US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade, T. G., Riitters, K. H., Wickham, J. D., & Jones, K. B. (2003). Distribution and causes of global forest fragmentation. Conservation Ecology, 7. Available online: http://www.consecol.org/vol7/iss2/art7.

  • Wagner, H. H., & Fortin, M. (2005). Spatial analysis landscapes: Concepts and statistics. Ecology, 86, 1975–1987. doi:10.1890/04-0914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiersma, Y. F. (2001). When is a small park big enough? Effects of size, isolation and human disturbance on mammal species relaxation in Canadian national parks. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Guelph.

  • Wiersma, Y. F. (2007). The effect of target extent on the location of optimal protected areas networks in Canada. Landscape Ecology, 22, 1477–1487. doi:10.1007/s10980-007-9126-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilcox, B. A. (1978). Supersaturated island faunas: A species–age relationship for lizards on post-Pleistocene land-bridge islands. Science, 1999, 996–998. doi:10.1126/science.199.4332.996.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wulder, M. A., White, J. C., Magnussen, S., & McDonald, S. (2007a). Validation of a large area land cover product using purpose-acquired airborne video. Remote Sensing of Environment, 106, 480–491. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2006.09.012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wulder, M. A., Nelson, T., & Seemann, D. (2007b). Using spatial pattern to quantify relationship between samples, surroundings, and populations. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 131, 221–230. doi:10.1007/s10661-006-9470-8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wulder, M. A., White, J. C., Han, T., Coops, N. C., Cardille, J. A., Holland, T., et al. (2008a). Monitoring Canada’s forests. Part 2: National forest fragmentation and pattern. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 34, 563–584.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wulder, M. A., White, J. C., Cranny, M., Hall, R. J., Luther, J. E., Beaudoin, A., et al. (2008b). Monitoring Canada’s forests. Part 1: Completion of the EOSD land cover project. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 34, 549–548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. E., Arturo Sánchez-Azofeifa, G., Hannon, S. J., & Chapman, R. (2006). Trends in land cover change and isolation of protected areas at the interface of the southern boreal mixedwood and aspen parkland in Alberta, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management, 230, 151–161. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.04.031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Forest Resource Management, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, Canada

    Nicholas O. Soverel & Nicholas C. Coops

  2. Canadian Forest Service (Pacific Forestry Center), Natural Resources Canada, Victoria, British Columbia, V8Z 1M5, Canada

    Joanne C. White & Michael A. Wulder

Authors
  1. Nicholas O. Soverel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nicholas C. Coops
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Joanne C. White
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michael A. Wulder
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicholas C. Coops.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Soverel, N.O., Coops, N.C., White, J.C. et al. Characterizing the forest fragmentation of Canada’s national parks. Environ Monit Assess 164, 481–499 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-0908-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-0908-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation