Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The paradox of the sustainable city: definitions and examples

  • Published:
Environment, Development and Sustainability Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

It is well known that sustainability has become a much needed target, especially considering the recent rapid urban sprawl and the subsequent exacerbation of social, environmental, and economic problems. Thus, many studies have been conducted to define sustainability and the sustainable city. However, many of these definitions suggest a range of contradictions, implying that the achievement of sustainability is elusive. The problem lies in setting unreasonable definitions of sustainability and in the various contradictions to these definitions, making sustainability seemingly unattainable. Hence, some models of cities are emerging that are labeled as sustainable cities; among these are the “zero-carbon city” and the “ubiquitous eco-city” (“U-eco-city”). This study reviews the history and definitions of sustainability, in order to acknowledge the contradictions inherent in these concepts. It also briefly presents the compact city, the zero-carbon eco-city, and the U-eco-city by determining their individual pros and cons and highlighting where there are any conflicts with the principles of sustainability. The aim of the study was to adjust the use of sustainability as a terminology in the field of urban sustainable development and to demonstrate the extent to which we use marketing names for eco-cities without compliance with sustainable dimensions. The study will also discuss the key sustainability pillar required for a project to be kept sustainable. The study concludes that the use of the term “sustainable city” may limit the potential for further enhancing sustainability in future projects; using the term “transition toward the sustainable city” may be more accurate and more effective. The results show that reducing energy consumption through efficient use, and relying on renewable energies, will be the keys to reaching urban sustainability. The study also finds that recent tyranny in the name of ecology will not result in real sustainability. Although the free eco-city and the u-eco-city are considered advanced models, their limitations are related more to the economic and social aspects than to the compact city, which clearly reflected the pillars of sustainability, despite its being an outdated model.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. “The Second Law of Thermodynamics decrees it impossible to have any organism or machine operating at 100 % efficiency. Hence, it is impossible to operate any system, whether it is engaged in production or pollution control, without some waste of energy or materials” (Premalatha et al. 2013, p. 665).

References

  • Abdul-Kadir, S., & Jamaludin, M. (2013). Universal design as a significant component for sustainable life and social development. Journal of Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 85, 180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alshuwaikhat, H. M., & Nkwenti, D. I. (2002). Developing sustainable cities in arid regions. Cities, 19(2), 85–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arthur, L. (2012). Masdar City: A model of urban environmental sustainability. 77 SOCI SCICS. pp. 77–82.

  • Berke, P., Manta, M. (1999). Planning for sustainable development: Measuring progress in plans. Lincoln Institute of Land policy (Working Paper): p. 3.

  • Blassingame, L. (1998). Sustainable cities: Oxymoron, utopia, or inevitability? The Social Science Journal, 35(1), 6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolay, J., & Kern, A. (2011). Technology and cities: What type of development is appropriate for cities of the south? Urban Technology, 18(3), 25–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borgonovi, E., & Compagni, A. (2013). Sustaining universal health coverage: The interaction of social, political, and economic sustainability. Value in Health, 6, s34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burnett, J. (2007). City buildings-Eco-labels and shades of green! Landscape and Urban Planning, 83, 29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caetano, M., Araújo, J. B., & Amaral, D. C. (2012). A framework for the application of eco-efficiency to the technology development process. Technology Management and Innovation, 7(2), 29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Camagni, R., Capello, R., & Nijkamp, P. (1998). Analysis towards sustainable city policy: An economy-environment technology nexus. Ecological Economics, 24, 116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caprotti, F. (2014). Critical research on eco-cities? A walk through the Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City, China. Cities, 36, 10–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, H. S., & Ahn, K. H. (2013). Assessing the sustenance and evolution of social and cultural contexts within sustainable urban development, using as a case the MAC in South Korea. Sustainable Cities and Society, 6, 51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cibworld (2014). CIB pro-active approach priority theme 1—sustainable construction CIB: News on CIB and Sustainable Construction. Online access: <http://cibworld.xs4all.nl/dl/ib/9903/pages/pro1.html#anchor413919>. Accessed 09 Jan 2014.

  • Dempsey, N., Brown, C., & Bramley, G. (2012). The key to sustainable urban development in UK cities? The influence of density on social sustainability. Journal of Progress in Planning, 77, 94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dominski, T. (1992). The three stage evolution of eco-cities: Reduce, reuse, recycle. In A. Walter, et al. (Eds.), Sustainable cities (pp. 16–18). Los Angeles: Eco-Home Media.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dou, X., Li, S., & Wang, J. (2013). Ecological strategy of city sustainable development. APCBEE Procedia, 5, 429–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dujardin, S., Marique, A. F., & Tellerb, J. (2014). Spatial planning as a driver of change in mobility and residentialenergy consumption. Journal of Energy and Buildings, 68, 779–785.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egger, S. (2006). Determining a sustainable city model. Environmental Modelling and Software, 21, 1236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elchalakani, M., Aly, T., & Abu-Aisheh, E. (2013). Sustainable concrete with high volume GGBFS to build Masdar City in the UAE. CASE Studies in Construction Materials,. doi:10.1016/j.cscm.2013.11.001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fowke, R., & Prasad, D. (1996). Sustainable development cities and local government. Australian Planner, 33, 61–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaspar, J., & Glaeser, E. L. (1998). Information technology and the future of cities. Urban Economics, 43, 136–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilman, R. (2013). The dynamic planetary context for intentional communities. Social Sciences Directory, 2(3), 2–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grêt-Regamey, A., Celio, E., Klein, T. M., & Hayek, U. W. (2013). Understanding ecosystem services trade-offs with interactive procedural modeling for sustainable urban planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 109, 107–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hassan, A. M., Hyowon, L., Yoo, U. (2013). Reviving the cultural heritage of Arabian–Islamic cities by new technological tools: From Islamic Cairo into Masdar City. Creative Renaissance, the 7th conference international forum on urbanism (IFOU); College of planning and design, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan, Oct. 7–11, 2013. CD, ISBN: 9789860382396, pp. 342–351.

  • Hassan, A. M., & Lee, H. (2014). A theoretical approach to the design of sustainable dwellings in hot dry zones: A Toshka case study. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 40, 251–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkes, D. (1995). Towards the sustainable city. Renewable Energy, 6(3), 348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstad, H. (2012). Compact city development: High ideals and emerging practices. European Journal of Spatial Development; 49. Available Online: http://www.nordregio.se/Global/EJSD/Refereed%20articles/refereed49.pdf; access date: may, 30th, 2014.

  • HoLee, S., Hoon, H. J., Taik, L. Y., et al. (2008). Towards ubiquitous city: Concept, planning, and experiences in the Republic of Korea. In T. Yigitcanlar, K. Velibeyoglu, & S. Baum (Eds.), Knowledge-based urban development: Planning and applications in the information Era (pp. 148–169). Hershey, PA: IGI Global, Information Science Reference.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hornby, A. S. (1995). Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current English (5th ed., p. 1205). UK: Oxford university press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howley, P., Scott, M., & Redmond, D. (2009). An examination of residential preferences for less sustainable housing: Exploring future mobility among Dublin central city residents. Cities, 26, 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inaba, J. (2012). Adaptation: Architecture, technology, and the city. ISBN: 0615738737, 9780615738734. p. 7. Available Online at: http://www.inaba.us/project/adaptation-architecture-technology-and-city. Accessed 26th March 2014.

  • ITU-T (2013). Smart cities—Seoul: A case study. ITU-T Technology Watch Report. Available Online: http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itut/oth/23/01/T23010000190001PDFE.pdf. Accessed 26th March 2014.

  • Jiang, Y., Shen, J. (2010). Measuring the urban competitiveness of Chinese cities in. Cities. 27, 312.

  • Jung, H. S., Jeong, C. S., Lee, Y. W., et al. (2009). An intelligent ubiquitous middleware for U-City: SmartUM. Journal of Information Science and Engineering, 25, 375–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. M., Kim, H. S., Moon, S. Y., et al. (2009). Ubiquitous eco-city planning in Korea. A Project for the Realization of Ecological City Planning and Ubiquitous Network Society. REAL CORP 2009: CITIES 3.0—Smart, Sustainable, Integrative. Proceedings of 14th International Conference on Urban Planning, Region al Development and Information Society, 22–25th, April, 2009; pp. 925–930. Catalonia, Spain. Available Online at: <http://programm.corp.at/cdrom2009/papers2009/CORP2009_174.pdf>. Accessed 26th March 2014.

  • Kolte, S., Kandya, A., Lakhtaria, K., et al. (2013). Evolving sustainable cities through the fabric of technological transformation. Procedia Engineering, 51, 480–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Komnitsas, K. A. (2011). Potential of geopolymer technology towards green buildings and sustainable cities. Procedia Engineering, 21, 1023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kühn, M. (2003). Greenbelt and green heart: Separating and integrating landscapes in European city regions. Journal of Landscape and Urban Planning, 64, 19–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kusakabe, E. (2013). Advancing sustainable development at the local level: The case of Machizukuri in Japanese cities. Progress in Planning, 80, 2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, J. C. Y. (2013). Sustainable urban transport planning and the commuting patterns of poor workers in a historic inner city in Guangzhou, China. Habitat International Journal, 39, 119–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehmann, S. (2010). The principles of green urbanism: Transforming the city for sustainability. London: Earthscan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindfield, M., Steinberg, F. (2012). Green cities. Asian Development Bank, p. 86. Available Online at: http://www10.iadb.org/intal/intalcdi/PE/2012/10650.pdf. Accessed 26th March 2014.

  • Maclaren, V. W. (1996). Urban sustainability reporting. Journal of the American Planning Association, 62(2), 185. Available also Online at <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01944369608975684>. Accessed 26th Jan 2013.

  • Masdarconnect (2013). Exploring Masdar city, Available at : <http://www.masdarconnect.com/userfiles/files/Exploring-Masdar-City-Site-Tour-Booklet.pdf>. Accessed 12 Aug 2013.

  • McDonough, W. (1992). The hannover principles: Design for sustainability. Prepared for EXPO 2000, The World’s Fair. Hannover, Germany. Available Online at: <http://www.mcdonough.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Hannover-Principles-1992.pdf>. Accessed 19th July 2014.

  • Murrain, P. (1993). Urban expansion: Look back and learn. In R. Hayward & McGlynn (Eds.), Making better places: Urban design now (pp. 83–94). Oxford: Butterworth.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Nader, S. (2009). Paths to a low-carbon economy—the Masdar example. Energy Procedia, 1, 3951–3958.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neuman, M. (2005). The compact city fallacy. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 25, 11–26. doi:10.1177/0739456X04270466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oktay, D. (2012). Human sustainable urbanism: In pursuit of ecological and social–cultural sustainability. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 36, 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oldenhuizing, J., Kraker, J., & Valkering, P. (2013). Design of a quality-of-life monitor to promote learning in a multi-actor network for sustainable urban development. Cleaner Production, 49, 74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paloheimo, E., & Salmi, O. (2013). Evaluating the carbon emissions of the low carbon city: A novel approach for consumer based allocation. Cities, 30, 238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickett, S. T. A., Boone, C. G., McGrath, B. P., et al. (2013). Ecological science and transformation to the sustainable city. Cities, 32, s13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pow, C. P., & Neo, H. (2013). Seeing red over green: Contesting urban sustainabilities in China. Urban Studies, 50(11), 2256–2274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Premalatha, M., Tauseef, S. M., Abbasi, T., et al. (2013). The promise and the performance of the world’s first two zero carbon eco-cities. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 25, 660–669.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rai, P. T. (2012). Townships for sustainable cities. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 37, 419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasoolimanesh, S. M., Badarulzaman, N., & Jaafar, M. (2012). City development strategies (CDS) and sustainable urbanization in developing world. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 36, 626.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiche, D. (2010). Renewable energy policies in the Gulf countries: A case study of the carbon-neutral ‘‘Masdar City’’ in Abu Dhabi. Energy Policy, 38, 378–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R. (1997). Cities for a small planet (p. 26). London: Faber and Faber Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, R. A. (2000). The usury debate, the sustainability debate and the call for a moral economy. Ecological Economics, 35, 157–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, M. (2009). Planning for sustainable urbanisation in fast growing cities: Mitigation and adaptation issues addressed in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Habitat International, 33, 278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saha, D., & Paterson, R. G. (2008). Local government efforts to promote the “Three Es” of sustainable development: Survey in medium to large Cities in the United States. Planning Education and Research, 28, 21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salonen, A. O., & Åhlberg, M. (2013). Obstacles to sustainable living in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area. Sustainable Cities and Society, 8, 54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheurer, J. (2007). Compact city policy: How Europe rediscovered its history and met resistance. 2005–2007 the urban reinventors Journal, issue 2. celebration of urbanity. Available online at: <http://www.urbanreinventors.net/2/scheurer/scheurer-urbanreinventors.pdf>. Accessed 17th Feb 2014.

  • Sgouridis, S., & Kennedy, S. (2010). Tangible and fungible energy: Hybrid energy market and currency system for total energy management. A Masdar City case study. Energy Policy, 38, 1749–1758.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharifi, A., & Murayama, A. (2013). Changes in the traditional urban form and the social sustainability of contemporary cities: A case study of Iranian cities. Habitat International, 38, 127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sonne, W. (2009). Dwelling in the metropolis: Reformed urban blocks 1890–1940 as a model for the sustainable compact city. Progress in Planning, 72, 55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ståhle, A. (2010). More green space in a denser city: Critical relations between user experience and urban form. Urban Design International Journal, 15(1), 47–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stirling, A. (1999). The appraisal of sustainability: Some problems and possible responses. Local Environment: The International Journal of Justice and Sustainability, 4(2), 111–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The National Council of Architecture Registration Boards (NCARB) (2001). Sustainable design. First edition, Washington, USA: (NCARB), the National Council of Architecture Registration Boards, 2001, pp. 3–21.

  • Theodoridou, I., Papadopoulos, A. M., & Hegger, M. (2012). A feasibility evaluation tool for sustainable cities—A case study for Greece. Energy Policy, 44, 209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WCED. (1987). Our common future. London: Oxford University Press. 46.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, L., & Lee, G. J. (2009). Operational research and sustainable development: Tackling the social dimension. European Journal of Operational Research, 193, 683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, M. (2003). (Re)Analysing the sustainable city: Nature, urbanisation and the regulation of socio-environmental relations in the UK. Urban Studies Journal, 40(7), 1186. Available also online at <http://usj.sagepub.com/content/40/7/1183>. Accessed 27th Jan 2014.

  • Whitehead, I. (2010). Models of Sustainability? A Comparative Analysis of Ideal City Planning in Saltaire and Masdar City. GEO View: Online Undergraduate Review of Geography and Environmental Studies. ISSN: 1448-6482.

  • Yigitcanlar, T., & Lee, S. (2013). Korean ubiquitous-eco-city: A smart-sustainable urban form or a branding hoax? Technological Forecasting and Social Change Journal,. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2013.08.034.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, H. W., Shen, G. Q., & Wang, H. (2014). A review of recent studies on sustainable urban renewal. Habitat International, 41, 273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by a Grant (14RDRP-B076574-01-000000) from Regional Development Research Program funded by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport of Korean government.

Conflict of interest

None.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Architecture, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbongro, Bukgu, Gwangju, 500-757, Republic of Korea

    Abbas M. Hassan & Hyowon Lee

  2. Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Al-Azhar University, Qena, Egypt

    Abbas M. Hassan

Authors
  1. Abbas M. Hassan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hyowon Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hyowon Lee.

Appendix 1

Appendix 1

See Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Timeline of some of the key people and events leading to sustainability (Authors)

Full size image

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hassan, A.M., Lee, H. The paradox of the sustainable city: definitions and examples. Environ Dev Sustain 17, 1267–1285 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-014-9604-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-014-9604-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation