Introduction
Theoretical considerations
Opportunity identification
Transnational ventures
Born globals and international new ventures
Institutional and cultural contexts
Research approach
The chosen method
Case | Age | Nationality | Relocation to Hong Kong | Founded company in Hong Kong | Years running business | Education and languages | Prior experiences of entrepreneurship | Previous experience abroad |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | 38 | Finnish | 2006 | 1st 2007, 2nd 2013 | 6, 3 | BBA, Bachelor in Business Administration English Cantonese Finnish | Father was an entrepreneur Worked with SMEs at Finnish export council in Guangzhou Own company in HK 2007–2013 | Exchange student in Shanghai for 6 months, 2005 Business development consulting in own company in HK, 2007–2013 |
B | 34 | Finnish | 2006 | 2006 | 10 | BTA, Bachelor in Trade Administration English Finnish | Father and uncle were entrepreneurs Own small business in Finland Internship at Finnish export council in Hong Kong working with Finnish SMEs | One year of high school in USA One summer in Germany Exchange student in Hong Kong |
C | 57 | Swedish | 2007 | 2009 | 7 | Missing data English Swedish | Own small business in Sweden Entreprenurial environment during large part of life | Personal contact with many countries since adolescence, including indirectly with Asia |
D | 51 | Finnish | 2001 | 2009 | 7 | Education in non-business-related field English Swedish Finnish Some Cantonese | Third-generation entrepreneur Worked from young age in parents’ company Started own trading business importing from China and HK when 16 years old in Finland | One year as an exchange student in USA Summer work in Sweden Work in HK since 2001 |
E | 34 | Finnish | 2006 | 2011 | 5 | BBA, Bachelor in Business Administration English Finnish | Founded own company in Finland, which was used to set up a company in HK | -University internship at a company in HK Worked 3 years at a company in HK from etablishment to closure Worked in Guangzhou with sourcing and production management |
F | 41 | Swedish | 2008 | 2009 | 7 | High-school dropout Swedish | In teen years started mail-order sales, opening first shop at age 17 Created own label sold in 30+ countries, including in own shops in many countries Company went public | Working with manufacturers of his own products in China since 1995 Own shops and sales in many countries |
G | 57 | Swedish | 1991 | 2002 | 14 | Mandarin Chinese studies at Lund University, in Beijing, and in Taiwan Marketing in New York Mandarin English Swedish | No previous experience of entrepreneurship | Studies in Beijing, Taiwan and New York Employment at a Swedish company’s buying office in Hong Kong in 10 years. Two last years as managing director in HK, Shanghai, and New Delhi |
The research context
Transnational entrepreneurship: Seven cases
Opportunity identification by transnational entrepreneurs
Turning cultural challenges into a competitive advantage
The Hong Kong people, they look Chinese, but behave like the Western people—but then they are suddenly super Chinese, with very deep Chinese values and so on. It was a little bit difficult to categorize them in the beginning… Hong Kong people are mixed, in between East and West. (E)
With time, a deeper understanding of the impact of cultural normative issues and differences in running a company are revealed and adapted to, as illustrated by B:When I came to Asia I didn’t pay any attention to the culture differences… When I started my own Hong Kong business and really started to do sales and business-developing work in Mainland China with Chinese customers, then there were a lot of cultural clashes. (A)
For A, the East–West meeting was facilitated by a partnership:In Hong Kong the partners and employees, they listen to you, they listen to you very carefully, and they pretend to agree with you, but that means nothing, for nothing really happens. It takes quite a long time to understand when things actually are progressing and when nothing is happening—I guess two or three years until you get it and understand how you should manage things, if you want the things to be done.
F, who had been doing business in Asia since 1995, summarized an insight that was expressed by all the informants: “After many years, I understand that there are so many more layers that it is very difficult to understand.” Over time, the personal experiences and capabilities of these entrepreneurs reduced the liability of foreignness (Hymer 1976; Zaheer 1995). They understood and could manage local business practices and customs and knew how to interact with local parties such as employees, customers, and suppliers. These capabilities reduced the risk of misunderstandings and conflicts and allowed them to bridge the psychic distance (Johanson and Vahlne 2009). In the next step, their cross-cultural bridging abilities (Piaskowska and Trojanowski 2014) could be leveraged for entering other foreign markets as well.I have already spent a decade in China and my Chinese co-founder has been a decade in the US, so we both understand a little bit of the culture of the other side. That has been really helpful.
Transnational entrepreneurship opportunities and ventures
Interviewee | Opportunity recognition | Opportunity type |
---|---|---|
A | Consulting firm: help technology companies with something to sell to producers in China | Assist firms in COO with selling to COR |
B | Privately bought a web camera in HK that was of very good quality; could sell such equipment on the Finnish equivalent of eBay, Huuto.net | Arbitrage between COR and COO |
C | Export | Arbitrage between COR and COO |
D | Started importing materials for a friend in HK, and then with him started a business to develop quality houses in a Nordic standard | Trading a different standard of materials from COO to CO |
E | Production management (sourcing and quality control) in China for Finnish customers | Assist firms in COO with production in COR |
F | Services: product development, compliance, recruiting, design, quality control, etc. | Assist firms in COO with production in CO |
G | Saw a niche for companies without their own buying offices out here: that they would need services like quality control, sourcing, and compliance auditing | Assist firms in COO with production in COR |
Manufacturing products in China entails similar cultural issues for exporter C. For both these exporters, the COO remains their main market, with 75% (C) and 95% (B) of total sales.I stopped believing in things, stopped having so many expectations. Some kind of “I believe when I see” approach… You need to make controls every week and every month.
Years of running business | Import/export/service | Sales on markets, location of customers | Location of suppliers | Employees | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | 3 | Import and export | 99% China, and some products inTaiwan Long-term target to expand to other developing countries in Asia | Finland, Russia, Denmark, USA, Germany, Malaysia, Taiwan, Indonesia | Total of 22: 14 in China, 5 in Finland, 1 in Taiwan, 1 in Germany, 1 in Canada |
B | 10 | Export | 95–97% home country, previously also some sales in two other European countries | China | 23 in China |
C | 7 | Export | 75% home country and another country, 25% in three other European countries | China | 1 in Hong Kong |
D | 7 | Import and export | 80% Hong Kong, 20% Macao Looking at Vietnam, Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand | Scandinavia, Germany, France, Japan, USA | Total of 10: 7 in Hong Kong, 1 in Finland, 1 in Macau, 1 in China |
E | 5 | Service | 95% China, some in Estonia | 95% home country | Total of 5: 4 in China, 1 in Finland |
F | 7 | Service | 45% Europe, 45% USA, and 10% Australia | China | 32 in Hong Kong |
G | 14 | Service | 95% home country, some in Australia | China, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Taiwan Just started in India | Total of 10: 9 in Hong Kong, 1 in China |
The institutional and cultural context of Hong Kong
Hong Kong is experienced as a dynamic society where business and entrepreneurship are appreciated and supported. “The people give support,” said G, and E explained that advice and help is offered without one owing anything in return:When you are dealing with the Government—it’s efficient, it’s very structured, there is no corruption. You read on websites what you should do and then that’s the way it works. So it’s a very uncomplicated, transparent place for business… There’s not much administration. (G)
The entrepreneurs found it easy to start the business, not the least administratively, as there are plenty of companies acting as corporate service providers. They consider it more convenient than the way the same things are done in the home countries:Hong Kong is a very dynamic society and people help other people a lot—when you meet somebody and you talk about business, they often say, “hey, I know somebody who can help you,” and then they call them for you immediately and that’s amazing. And they are not requiring anything in return… It’s great. I love it! (E)
A big difference is how fast different things can be put into action. I would say it was a little like night and day. (C)
Five of the entrepreneurs have experience of entrepreneurship in their home countries, and one of them (G) is just setting up a company there. The Finnish entrepreneurs find that Hong Kong has fewer rules and regulations, is less bureaucratic, and does not burden the enterprise with administrative duties to the same degree as in Finland:It is very simple, you can start a company in the morning and have your bank account opened. It is up and running right away and you can start to invoice in the afternoon. (F)
The Swedish entrepreneurs think that setting up a company in Sweden has been made easier and more straightforward, but still is more expensive than in Hong Kong. Also, hiring people is seen as more complicated, requiring more commitment, costs, and administration. The bureaucracy and processing times in Sweden were also highlighted: “much more cumbersome, more bureaucracy, much longer processing times” (F).In Hong Kong, the Government does not interfere in your business… Finland has so many rules about everything and it’s very complicated for a new company… and lots of bureaucracy, which means constant efforts for you all the time. (E)
But overall (A, B, C, D, E, G), the stance of the government is experienced as supportive, allowing them to concentrate on entrepreneurship. The government may also give financial support to entrepreneurs: “When I participated at an exhibition, the Hong Kong government funded 50% of the cost. Hong Kong is particularly business friendly and flexible” (C).In Hong Kong, when the people are doing something they are used to and there is a clear protocol, it’s very efficient, but if there ever is a situation where people don’t know how—or what—to do, or there is not a protocol, it can be a little bit complicated. (F)